Martian Gullies Research Articles

Downslope sediment transport by boiling liquid water under Mars-like conditions: experiments and potential implications for Martian gullies

Abstract Gullies are widespread morphological features on Mars for which current changes have been observed. Liquid water has been one of the potential mechanisms to explain their formation and activity. However, under present-day Martian conditions, liquid water is unstable and should only be transiently present in small amounts at the surface. Yet little attention has been paid to the mechanisms by which unstable water transports sediment under low atmospheric pressure. Here we present the results of laboratory experiments studying the interaction between liquid water flowing over a sand bed under Mars-like atmospheric pressure ( c. 9 mbar). The experiments were performed in a Mars Simulation Chamber (at the Open University, UK), in which we placed a test bed of fine sand at a 25° slope. We chose to investigate the influence of two parameters: the temperature of the water and the temperature of the sand. We performed 27 experiments with nine different combinations of water and sand temperatures ranging from 278 to 297 K. Under all experimental conditions, the water was boiling. We investigated and compared the types and timing of sediment transport events, and the shapes, characteristics and volumes of the resulting morphologies. In agreement with previous laboratory studies we found that more intense boiling increased the volume of sediment transported for a given volume of water. We found four main types of sediment transport: entrainment by overland flow; grain ejection; grain avalanches; and levitation of saturated sand pellets. Our results showed that increasing sand temperature was the main driving parameter in increasing the sand transport and in modifying the dominant sediment transport mechanism. The temperature of the water played a negligible or minor role, apart from the duration of sand ejection and avalanches, which lasted longer at low water temperature. At low sand temperature the majority of the sand was transported by overland flow of the liquid water. At higher sand temperatures the transport was dominated by processes triggered by the boiling behaviour of the water. At the highest temperatures, sediment transport was dominated by the formation of levitating pellets, dry avalanches and ejection of the sand grains. This resulted in a transport volume about nine times greater at a sand temperature of 297 K compared with 278 K. Our heat transfer scaling shows that the boiling behaviour will be enhanced under Martian low gravity, resulting in more efficient transport of sediment by levitating sand pellets even at temperatures close to the triple point. Our results showed that the boiling intensity played an important role in the physics of sediment transport by liquid water. This implied that the amount of water required to produce morphological changes at the surface of Mars could be lower than previously estimated by assuming stable liquid water. Boiling is a critical process to be considered when assessing gully formation and modification mechanisms mobilized by liquid water. Our work could have similar implications for any water-formed landform on Mars, which could include recurring slope lineae, dark dune flows and slope streaks.

An experimental investigation into Martian gully formation: a slush-flow model

Abstract To understand the potential applicability of the process of ‘slush flow’ (a sediment-carrying flow with water and ice) to gullies on Mars, we undertook a series of flume experiments at Earth surface temperatures and pressures, which we subsequently scaled for Mars. Experiments were conducted in a 3 × 0.5 m hinged flume filled with medium-grain-size sand. The experiments were performed over a slope angle range of 10°–30°, corresponding to the slope range for gullies observed on Mars. A water ice mix, or ‘slush’, was flowed through a 19 mm-diameter silicone hose and released onto the surface at the top of the slope. A variety of morphometric parameters were measured on each form produced in the flume. The forms produced in our experiments developed the three principal morphological components of Martian gullies: alcove, channel and apron, and had a diversity of planimetric forms. The forms produced during simulations compared well to slush flows in terrestrial arctic climates, and open up the possibility that some Martian gullies may result from slush flows associated with the thawing of permafrost-active layers or surface frost under favourable thermal regimes.

The formation of gullies on Mars today

Abstract A decade of high-resolution monitoring has revealed extensive activity in fresh Martian gullies. Flows within the gullies are diverse: they can be relatively light, neutral or dark, colourful or bland, and range from superficial deposits to 10 m-scale topographic changes. We observed erosion and transport of material within gullies, new terraces, freshly eroded channel segments, migrating sinuous curves, channel abandonment, and lobate deposits. We also observed early stages of gully initiation, demonstrating that these processes are not merely modifying pre-existing landforms. The timing of activity closely correlates with the presence of seasonal CO 2 frost, so the current changes must be part of ongoing gully formation that is driven largely by its presence. We suggest that the cumulative effect of many flows erodes alcoves and channels, and builds lobate aprons, with no involvement of liquid water. Instead, flows may be fluidized by sublimation of entrained CO 2 ice or other mechanisms. The frequent activity is likely to have erased any features dating from high-obliquity periods, so fresh gully geomorphology at middle and high latitudes is not evidence for past liquid water. CO 2 ice-driven processes may have been important throughout Martian geological history and their deposits could exist in the rock record, perhaps resembling debris-flow sediments.

Testing the water hypothesis: Quantitative morphological analysis of terrestrial and martian mid-latitude gullies

Although Martian gullies resemble terrestrial counterparts, two conflicting hypotheses exist for their formation still invoke fluvial processes on the one hand or lubricated CO2 flows on the other. In this work we compared the quantitative morphology of terrestrial gullies, known to have formed by liquid water, and mid-latitude Martian gullies in the Martian southern hemisphere. We also compared these results with measurements of Martian dry ravines adjacent to the gullies. Our results show a similarity between Martian and terrestrial gully formation, supporting the hypothesis that liquid water was involved in their erosion. Our results show dry ravines differ morphologically from gullies, further suggesting fluidised flows as a likely origin of the latter. Variations in the relationships across various terrestrial and Martian gullies indicate the significance of local environmental and geological conditions. Our work supports the idea that Martian gullies may not have been formed by just one single process but may have evolved through a more complex interaction of processes and environment.

Mass wasting triggered by seasonal CO2 sublimation under Martian atmospheric conditions: Laboratory experiments

AbstractSublimation is a recognized process by which planetary landscapes can be modified. However, interpretation of whether sublimation is involved in downslope movements on Mars and other bodies is restricted by a lack of empirical data to constrain this mechanism of sediment transport and its influence on landform morphology. Here we present the first set of laboratory experiments under Martian atmospheric conditions which demonstrate that the sublimation of CO2 ice from within the sediment body can trigger failure of unconsolidated, regolith slopes and can measurably alter the landscape. Previous theoretical studies required CO2 slab ice for movements, but we find that only frost is required. Hence, sediment transport by CO2 sublimation could be more widely applicable (in space and time) on Mars than previously thought. This supports recent work suggesting CO2 sublimation could be responsible for recent modification in Martian gullies.

New insights into gully formation on Mars: Constraints from composition as seen by MRO/CRISM

AbstractOver 100 Martian gully sites were analyzed using orbital data collected by the Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM) and High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO). Most gullies are spectrally indistinct from their surroundings, due to mantling by dust. Where spectral information on gully sediments was obtained, a variety of mineralogies were identified. Their relationship to the source rock suggests that gully‐forming processes transported underlying material downslope. There is no evidence for specific compositions being more likely to be associated with gullies or with the formation of hydrated minerals in situ as a result of recent liquid water activity. Seasonal CO2 and H2O frosts were observed in gullies at middle to high latitudes, consistent with seasonal frost‐driven processes playing important roles in the evolution of gullies. Our results do not clearly indicate a role for long‐lived liquid water in gully formation and evolution.

A novel topographic parameterization scheme indicates that martian gullies display the signature of liquid water

Martian gullies resemble gullies carved by water on Earth, yet are thought to have formed in an extremely cold (<−50°C) and dry (humidity <100 precipitable micrometers) surface environment (cf. Mellon et al., 2004). Despite more than a decade of observations, no consensus has emerged as to whether liquid water is required to form martian gullies, with some recent studies favouring dry CO2-driven processes. That this argument persists demonstrates the limitations of morphological interpretations made from 2D images, especially when similar-looking landforms can form by very different processes. To overcome this we have devised a parameterization scheme, based on statistical discriminant analysis and hydrological terrain analysis of meter-scale digital topography data, which can distinguish between dry and wet surface processes acting on a landscape. Applying this approach to new meter-scale topographic datasets of Earth, the Moon and Mars, we demonstrate that martian gullied slopes are dissimilar to dry, gullied slopes on Earth and the Moon, but are similar to both terrestrial debris flows and fluvial gullies. We conclude that liquid water was integral to the process by which martian gullies formed. Finally, our work shows that quantitative 3D analyses of landscape have great potential as a tool in planetary science, enabling remote assessment of processes acting on planetary surfaces.

How Do Gullies Form on Mars?

New orbiter data support an important role for seasonal frost—not liquid water—in the formation of Martian gullies.

A classification of martian gullies from HiRISE imagery

Due to the large and varied population of gullies observed in Mars High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) imagery that exhibit diverse characteristics, this paper develops a classification of martian gullies based on their morphological characteristics. This provides a firmer foundation for future investigation of the genesis of different gully morphologies. The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) image catalog on the HiRISE website was examined and 869 images, chosen from the first 25,000 orbits, show a wide variety of gully morphologies. The images were analyzed using ENVI 4.4 and ENVI Zoom and the gullies were cataloged and divided into groups based on the presence and character of the dominant morphological components of alcove, channel, and apron associated with each gully. 7519 gullies were identified in the images and the length and width of the components were measured in ENVI to facilitate classification. Seven classes were developed based on morphology.

Present-day formation and seasonal evolution of linear dune gullies on Mars

Linear dune gullies are a sub-type of martian gullies. As their name suggests they only occur on sandy substrates and comprise very long (compared to their width) straight or sinuous channels, with relatively small source areas and almost non-existent visible deposits. Linear dune gullies have never been observed on terrestrial dunes and their formation process on Mars is unclear. Here, we present the results of the first systematic survey of these features in Mars’ southern hemisphere and an in-depth study of six dunefields where repeat-imaging allows us to monitor the changes in these gullies over time. This study was undertaken with HiRISE images at 25–30cm/pix and 1m/pix elevation data derived from HiRISE stereo images. We find the latitudinal distribution and orientation of linear dune gullies broadly consistent with the general population of martian gullies. They occur predominantly between 36.3°S and 54.3°S, and occasionally between 64.6°S and 70.4°S. They are generally oriented toward SSW (at bearings between 150° and 260°). We find that these gullies are extremely active over the most recent 5 Martian years of images. Activity comprises: (1) appearance of new channels, (2) lengthening of existing channels, (3) complete or partial reactivation, and (4) disappearance of gullies. We find that gully channels lengthen by ∼100m per year. The intense activity and the progressive disappearance of linear dune gullies argues against the hypothesis that these are remnant morphologies left over from previous periods of high obliquity millions of years ago. The activity of linear dune gullies reoccurs every year between the end of winter and the beginning of spring (Ls 167.4°–216.6°), and coincides with the final stages of the sublimation of annual CO₂ ice deposit. This activity often coincides spatially and temporally with the appearance of recurrent diffusing flows (RDFs)—digitate-shaped, dark patches with low relative albedo (up to 48% lower than the adjacent dune) that encompass the active site. South- and SSW-facing dune slopes are those which preferentially host CO2 frost deposits, however, it is only those with angles of ∼20° just below the crest which possess linear dune gullies, suggesting a slope-limited formation process. These observations provide a wealth of temporal and morphometric data that can be used to undertake numerical modeling, to direct future image monitoring and guide laboratory experiments that can be used to better constrain the formation process of these features.

Multi-agent gully processes: Evidence from the Monaro Volcanic Province, Australia and in Terra Cimmeria, Mars

Comparison of the similarities and differences between terrestrial and Martian hillside gullies promotes understanding of how surface processes operate on both planets. Here we tested the viability of subsurface flow of water as a process affecting gully evolution. We compared gullies within the Monaro Volcanic Province near Cooma, New South Wales, Australia, to gullies possessing strong structural control near Gasa Crater, Terra Cimmeria, Mars. Although cursory examination of the Monaro gullies initially suggested strong evidence for aquifer erosion, detailed field surveys showed the evidence to be ambiguous. Instead a complex regime of erosion dependent on multiple conditions and processes such as local geology, surface runoff, dry mass wasting, and animal activity emerged. We found the morphology of gullies near Gasa Crater to be consistent with erosion caused by liquid water, while also being heavily influenced by the local environment, including slope and geology. Additionally, erosion at the Martian site was not consistent with evidence of subsequent, smaller scale erosion and channel modification by dry mass wasting. Local conditions thus play an important role in gully evolution, further highlighting that processes forming Martian gullies may be more diverse than initially thought.

Formation of gullies on Mars by debris flows triggered by CO2 sublimation

Martian gully landforms resemble terrestrial debris flows formed by the action of liquid water and have thus been interpreted as evidence for potential habitable environments on Mars within the past few millennia. However, ongoing gully formation has been detected under surface conditions much too cold for liquid water, but at times in the martian year when a thin layer of seasonal CO_2 frost is present and defrosting above the regolith. These observations suggest that the CO_2 condensation–sublimation cycle could play a role in gully formation. Here we use a thermo-physical numerical model of the martian regolith underlying a CO_2 ice layer and atmosphere to show that the pores beneath the ice layer can be filled with CO_2 ice and subjected to extreme pressure variations during the defrosting season. The subsequent gas fluxes can destabilize the regolith material and induce gas-lubricated debris flows with geomorphic characteristics similar to martian gullies. Moreover, we find that subsurface CO_2 ice condensation, sublimation and pressurization occurs at conditions found at latitudes and slope orientations where gullies are observed. We conclude that martian gullies can result from geologic dry ice processes that have no terrestrial analogues and do not require liquid water. Such dry ice processes may have helped shape the evolution of landforms elsewhere on the martian surface.

Mars on dry ice

Martian gullies have been seen as evidence for past surface water runoff. However, numerical modelling now suggests that accumulation and sublimation of carbon dioxide ice, rather than overland flow of liquid water, may be driving modern gully formation.

Automated Detection of Martian Gullies from HiRISE Imagery

Gully is a type of young geological feature on the Martian surface, and the study of gullies can significantly contribute to understanding of the geologic history of Martian surface. As a large amount of high-resolution orbital images have been acquired, manual identification and extraction of all gullies is tedious and prohibitively time consuming. Therefore, it is desirable to develop automated methods for detection of Martian gullies to support scientific studies of the gullies. This paper presents an automated gully detection method based on mathematical morphology techniques. The method integrates a series of morphological operators, including area opening and closing, Bottom-Hat transformation, and path opening. Experimental results using HiRISE images at six sites demonstrate promising performance with detection percentage from 76 percent to 94 percent.

Sedimentological analyses of martian gullies: The subsurface as the key to the surface

Gullies are among the youngest landforms formed by liquid water on Mars, and therefore of critical importance in resolving the planets most recent hydrologic and climatic history. Water-free sediment flows, debris flows and fluvial flows have all been identified in gullies. These processes require very different amounts of liquid water, and therefore their relative contribution to gully-formation is of key importance for climatic inferences. We show that many gullies dominantly formed by debris flows, based on sedimentological analysis of outcrops in gully-fans in 51 HiRISE images widely distributed over the southern midlatitudes. The great majority (96%) of outcrop exposures in gully-fans fed by catchments which mainly comprise bedrock and thus host boulders, contain sedimentological evidence for debris-flow formation. These exposures contain many randomly distributed large boulders (>1m) suspended in a finer matrix and in some cases lens-shaped and truncated layering. Such diagnostic features are rare in gully-fan exposures mainly fed by catchments comprising abundant latitude dependent mantle deposits (LDM; a smooth, often meters-thick deposit consisting mainly of ice and dust), wherein boulders are largely absent. These LDM-fed gullies may have formed by fine-grained debris flows, but this cannot be determined from outcrop sedimentology alone because of the lack of boulders in these systems. The fan surface morphology, in contrast to the subsurface, is dominated by secondary, post-depositional, processes, mainly weathering, wind erosion, and ice-dust mantling. These processes have removed or severely reworked the original, primary, debris-flow morphology over time. This explains the controversy between previously published morphometric analyses implying debris-flow formation and observations of gully-fan surfaces, which are often interpreted as the product of fluvial flows because of the absence of surficial debris-flow morphology. The inferred debris-flow origin for many gullies implies limited and ephemeral liquid water during gully-formation.

The comparison of topographic long profiles of gullies on Earth to gullies on Mars: A signal of water on Mars

The topographic signature of a landform can give important clues as to its formation process. Here, we have used topographic long profiles to study the process of gully formation on Mars. We studied topographic long profiles of gullies on Earth to (1) confirm that previously published generalisations of how long profile shape varies with process also applies at the kilometre-scale of martian gullies, and (2) use as a direct comparison with the martian data. We have compared 24 fluvial and 22 debris flow long profiles of terrestrial gullies derived from laser altimeter and GPS measurements, to 78 long profiles of a range of gullies on Mars derived from a stereo-photogrammetry point-matching technique. We have confirmed that this manual point-matching technique is reliable for the martian data by comparison with full digital elevation models. We used nine different characteristics of the long profiles, including slope and curvature parameters, to perform a canonical discriminant analysis, which allowed us to identify the variables most important for differentiating between fluvial and debris flow gullies on Earth. In agreement with published literature for larger-scale features, we found that terrestrial debris flow gullies tend to be steeper and less concave than fluvial gullies. We have found that gully long profiles on Mars can resemble long profiles of terrestrial gullies formed by either fluvial or debris flow processes, with slightly more affinity to fluvial systems. Gullies on Mars can only be weakly separated from those on Earth: they can be separated from terrestrial fluvial gullies on curvature parameters and from terrestrial debris flow gullies by slope parameters. In addition, we have found that different alcove types identified from planview morphology are also distinctive in terms of their long profile morphology: gullies which incise back into the bedrock are more similar to terrestrial debris flows whereas polar-pit gullies are most similar to terrestrial fluvial gullies. Our findings suggest that the presence of a bedrock alcove promotes debris flow behaviour in gullies on Mars.

Global documentation of gullies with the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter Context Camera and implications for their formation

Hypotheses ranging from fluvial processes and debris flows to CO2 frost-lubricated or entirely dry flows have been proposed for the formation of martian gullies. In order to constrain these potential formation mechanisms, we mapped the global distribution of gullies on Mars using >54,000 images from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) Context Camera (CTX) covering ∼85% of the martian surface at a resolution of ∼6m/pixel. The results of this mapping effort confirm the results of studies using lower resolution and/or less areally extensive datasets that gullies are confined to the martian mid- to high-latitudes (∼30–80° in both hemispheres). We also find a clear transition in gully orientation with increasing latitude, going from poleward-facing to equator-facing preference. In general, gullies are more developed on poleward-facing walls, and mid-latitude gullies are more developed than those at higher latitudes. Gullies are also found to be strongly correlated with regions of distinct thermophysical properties of sand- to pebble-sized grains, low albedo, and higher thermal inertia. These observations all point to climate, insolation, and thermal properties of the substrate playing key factors in gully formation on Mars, supporting either a melting ground ice or snowpack hypothesis as the source for water involved in gully formation.

Analysis of regional gullies within Noachis Terra, Mars: A complex relationship between slope, surface material and aspect

The precise mechanisms by which martian hillside gullies erode and their dependence on the local environment remain subjects of debate. We studied three sharp rimmed craters in Noachis Terra and 37 gully profiles using Context Camera (CTX), Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) and High Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC) data. We analysed the gully topographic profiles of seven gullies and nine dry ravines. We measured slope properties using HRSC elevation data and used thermal inertia to infer material types of the gully sites. We compared these with three nearby Noachian age craters possessing crater wall slope angles within the range of previously observed gully formations. In-line with previous findings on individual gullies, we found that the slope angles of gullies in our study area consistently reflect the inherited slope angles of the host escarpment, suggesting that traditional slope-based evidence of fluvial activity in martian gullies needs to be placed in context of its local environment. We also observed a direct relationship between gully morphology and local composition of surface units. Martian gully features, and possibly method of erosion appeared heavily influenced by changes in underlying geology and presence of erodible sediment. Examples included gully shape changing in accordance with type of erodible sediment. We suggest that the degraded rims of gully-free Noachian craters precluded slope angles high enough to trigger creation of precursors to alcoves through mass wasting. Lack of these hollows has probably prevented the accumulation of enough ice-rich sediment for gullies to form in. Our analysis reveals that there is a complex interdependence between slope processes and the local environment, and global martian gully models may not work at the local scale.

Laboratory simulation of debris flows over sand dunes: Insights into gully-formation (Mars)

Gully morphology (often summarized as comprising an alcove, channel and debris apron) is one of the key elements used to support the argument for liquid water in the recent past on Mars. Nevertheless, the processes that create different gully morphologies, on both Mars and Earth, are not fully understood. One of the puzzling morphologic attributes of Martian dune gullies is their apparent lack of an apron, or terminal deposit, which has caused debate about their formation process. Several physical processes such as runoff, debris flows, granular flows, and sliding blocks falling downslope could explain the formation of these gullies. In this work, we focus on the role of liquid in the substrate as well as in the flow and choose to experimentally test the plausibility of this hypothesis. We performed a series of analogue experiments to investigate the formation of gullies on sand dune-like substrates. We used controlled flows of water over an inclined sand-box to produce gully-like forms. Ice-rich sedimentary substrates were used, including substrates that included a thin liquid water-saturated thawed layer (an ‘active layer’) above the ice-saturated zone to give an analogue for a ‘periglacial’ environment. We quantitatively demonstrate that debris flow processes in ‘periglacial’ experiments are conducive to the formation of narrow and long channels with small terminal deposits with perched channels. By re-analysis of Martian elevation data for dune-gullies on Mars, we have found good evidence that such terminal deposits could exist. Our experiments revealed that increased water content in the thawed layer above the frozen bed increases flow-length due to the subsequent reduction in infiltration capacity. Water is incorporated into the flow by erosion of the wet thawed layer (sand plus water) and by drainage of the thawed layer. Using a Mars environment simulation chamber, we found that atmospheric pressure conditions seem to have a limited influence on the morphology of the flows. Our experimental investigation allowed the reproduction of terrestrial debris flow and Martian gully morphologies, suggesting that a substrate that is resistant to infiltration could be present beneath the dune gullies on Mars. We suggest that, like in our laboratory experiments, the presence of ice at shallow depth is a possible explanation for the formation of these morphologies and that a wet thawed layer is a possible explanation for the long flow-length.

Quantitative analysis of the morphology of martian gullies and insights into their formation

The process of formation of observed geologically recent gully features on Mars has remained a topic of intense debate since their discovery. In this study, we performed quantitative morphological analysis on certain parameters of gullies from different settings, such as crater walls, terraces, and sand dunes, on the martian surface in addition to the Meteor and Xiuyan craters on the Earth. The morphometric parameters were measured for cross profiles, which were extracted along each gully at certain intervals. Some interesting relationships among the parameters were determined, which could provide us a comprehensive understanding of the morphologies of the gullies’. The results show that strong correlations exist among those parameters, and the gullies are morphometrically similar, except for a scale difference in different geologic settings. The morphometric similarity implies that they were probably formed by some common processes. On the other hand, the morphometric differences indicate that the processes may have played different roles in the formation of the gullies. The formation of gullies on the Earth crater walls was heavily affected by surface flow and slippage, and pre-existing fractures and faults were also very influential in their formation. We propose that gullies in martian crater walls and terraces should have a similar formation mechanism, and they can probably account for most of gullies appearing on crater walls. The morphometric differences between the gullies in sand dunes and other gully types are probably a result of the disparity in lithological settings, which have significant influence on erosion ability even for the same agents.