Martian Dunes Research Articles

Recent near-surface wind directions inferred from mapping sand ripples on Martian dunes

The High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) provides the capability to obtain orbital images of Mars that are of sufficient resolution to record wind ripple patterns on the surfaces of sand dunes. Ripple patterns provide valuable insights into aeolian erosion and deposition on Earth and Mars. In this study, we develop a systematic mapping procedure to examine sand ripple orientations and create surface process maps to evaluate the recent wind flow over the dunes, as well as the interplay of wind and dune shape. By carefully examining the morphology of the dunes and the location of grainflow and grainfall on dune slipfaces, the recent near-surface wind direction (short-term wind) can be identified. Results from the analysis of three dune fields on the floors of craters west of Hellas Basin show regional N, NW, SE, and ESE wind directions. In the three adjacent dune fields, surface process and flow maps suggest a complex wind pattern. The comparison of short-term wind with dune-constructing wind (long-term wind) shows NE and ESE winds may be persistent at least for the past thousands of years. The results also show that the orientation of inferred wind direction on linear dunes is correlated with the crestlines, which suggest that form–flow interaction may take place. The results of local wind flow documentation should improve Martian surface wind modeling and advance our understanding of sand transport, as well as the rates of sand mobility on both Mars and Earth.

Laboratory simulation of debris flows over sand dunes: Insights into gully-formation (Mars)

Gully morphology (often summarized as comprising an alcove, channel and debris apron) is one of the key elements used to support the argument for liquid water in the recent past on Mars. Nevertheless, the processes that create different gully morphologies, on both Mars and Earth, are not fully understood. One of the puzzling morphologic attributes of Martian dune gullies is their apparent lack of an apron, or terminal deposit, which has caused debate about their formation process. Several physical processes such as runoff, debris flows, granular flows, and sliding blocks falling downslope could explain the formation of these gullies. In this work, we focus on the role of liquid in the substrate as well as in the flow and choose to experimentally test the plausibility of this hypothesis. We performed a series of analogue experiments to investigate the formation of gullies on sand dune-like substrates. We used controlled flows of water over an inclined sand-box to produce gully-like forms. Ice-rich sedimentary substrates were used, including substrates that included a thin liquid water-saturated thawed layer (an ‘active layer’) above the ice-saturated zone to give an analogue for a ‘periglacial’ environment. We quantitatively demonstrate that debris flow processes in ‘periglacial’ experiments are conducive to the formation of narrow and long channels with small terminal deposits with perched channels. By re-analysis of Martian elevation data for dune-gullies on Mars, we have found good evidence that such terminal deposits could exist. Our experiments revealed that increased water content in the thawed layer above the frozen bed increases flow-length due to the subsequent reduction in infiltration capacity. Water is incorporated into the flow by erosion of the wet thawed layer (sand plus water) and by drainage of the thawed layer. Using a Mars environment simulation chamber, we found that atmospheric pressure conditions seem to have a limited influence on the morphology of the flows. Our experimental investigation allowed the reproduction of terrestrial debris flow and Martian gully morphologies, suggesting that a substrate that is resistant to infiltration could be present beneath the dune gullies on Mars. We suggest that, like in our laboratory experiments, the presence of ice at shallow depth is a possible explanation for the formation of these morphologies and that a wet thawed layer is a possible explanation for the long flow-length.

A new expression describing the migration of aeolian dunes

Based on quantitative simulations on the formation and evolution of aeolian dune fields, a semi-analytical equation describing the migration of aeolian sand dunes with respect to dune height, annual wind regime, frictional wind speed, and sand grain diameter is proposed in this paper through analyzing the migration speeds of aeolian sand dunes with different heights in a dune field. The migration speeds of aeolian sand dunes on Earth predicted by the equation is consistent with field observations, and it can be applied to describe the migration of underwater sand dunes and aeolian snow dunes on Earth, as well as that of aeolian sand dunes on other planets, for example Martian sand dunes. In addition, we can also obtain the annual wind regime and the frictional wind speed in dune fields by the A–W method proposed by this paper for given dune speed and sand diameter. It provides a new way to obtain the information of wind field in desert hinterland and on other planets.

Valles Marineris dune fields as compared with other martian populations: Diversity of dune compositions, morphologies, and thermophysical properties

Planetary dune field properties and their bulk bedform morphologies relate to regional wind patterns, sediment supply, climate, and topography. On Mars, major occurrences of spatially contiguous low-albedo sand dunes are primarily found in three major topographic settings: impact craters, high-latitude basins, and linear troughs or valleys, the largest being the Valles Marineris (VM) rift system. As one of the primary present day martian sediment sinks, VM holds nearly a third of the non-polar dune area on Mars. Moreover, VM differs from other regions due to its unusual geologic, topographic, and atmospheric setting. Herein, we test the overarching hypothesis that VM dune fields are compositionally, morphologically, and thermophysically distinct from other low- and mid-latitude (50°N–50°S latitude) dune fields. Topographic measurements of dune fields and their underlying terrains indicate slopes, roughnesses, and reliefs to be notably greater for those in VM. Variable VM dune morphologies are shown with topographically-related duneforms (climbing, falling, and echo dunes) located among spur-and-gully wall, landslide, and chaotic terrains, contrasting most martian dunes found in more topographically benign locations (e.g., craters, basins). VM dune fields superposed on Late Amazonian landslides are constrained to have formed and/or migrated over >10s of kilometers in the last 50My to 1Gy. Diversity of detected dune sand compositions, including unaltered ultramafic minerals and glasses (e.g., high and low-calcium pyroxene, olivine, Fe-bearing glass), and alteration products (hydrated sulfates, weathered Fe-bearing glass), is more pronounced in VM. Observations show heterogeneous sand compositions exist at the regional-, basinal-, dune field-, and dune-scales. Although not substantially greater than elsewhere, unambiguous evidence for recent dune activity in VM is indicated from pairs of high-resolution images that include: dune deflation, dune migration, slip face modification (e.g., alcoves), and ripple modification or migration, at varying scales (10s–100sm2). We conclude that VM dune fields are qualitatively and quantitatively distinct from other low- and mid-latitude dune fields, most readily attributable to the rift’s unusual setting. Moreover, results imply dune field properties and aeolian processes on Mars can be largely influenced by regional environment, which may have their own distinctive set of boundary conditions, rather than a globally homogenous collection of aeolian sediment and bedforms.

Wind may have driven avalanches on Martian dunes

In the sand dunes in the north polar sand sea of Mars, sand avalanches that appear as wedge‐shaped alcoves can be seen above fan‐shaped deposits. The avalanches, which are typically several meters across, are currently actively forming, with new alcoves showing up in recent images taken in consecutive Mars years. Some scientists have proposed that these sand avalanches occur when frozen carbon dioxide (CO2) sublimates, triggering the downslope flow (mass wasting) of sand grains and rock that had been lying on top of the CO2 frost. However, Horgan and Bell now suggest that these alcoves may actually have been formed by wind‐driven movement of sand, not by CO2 sublimation.

Interpretation of the complex dune morphology on Mars: dune activity, modelling and a terrestrial analogue

ABSTRACTIn this work we analyze a dark erg on Mars that could be considered a mega‐dune (draa) where secondary dunes of different morphology are superposed over a main crescent‐shaped bedform (primary dune). The presence of a complex, multi‐directional wind regime is indicated as one of the main causes for the accumulation of a tall draa, presenting an analogy to the Great Sand Dunes in Colorado. In both cases, main regional winds from the SW blow in opposition to winds from the NE which are enhanced by the topography. Such a complex wind regime leads to the development of star and reversing dunes and is accurately predicted by atmospheric models on a regional and local scale. Signs of activity in the form of grainflow scars are also noted over the slip faces of many dunes, suggesting that easterly winds are actively shaping the study draa in the present‐day climatic setting. The presence of this draa on Mars suggests a complex interaction between regional and local topographically controlled flows and a consistent availability of sand. The future study of an analogue terrestrial site such as the Great Sand Dunes could be fundamental for understanding the evolution of similar Martian dune fields. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Morphological and mechanical characterization of gullies in a periglacial environment: The case of the Russell crater dune (Mars)

Gullies on terrestrial sand dunes are rare, and their presence on Mars, as well as their mechanical properties, and the quantity of fluid required for their formations currently remain poorly understood. This study focuses on gully morphologies on the Russell megadune (54.5°S; 12.7°E) using High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) images and Digital Terrain Models (DTM). Based on the scenario of ground ice melting in a periglacial environment, we propose to test the hypothesis that Martian gullies on dunes are debris flows. This implies a flow with a significant proportion of liquid water (>10% in volume). We used an original method to study Martian gullies based on empirical equations from terrestrial debris flows in order to calculate the physical properties of Martians flows. We observe a decrease in viscosity induced by the relative increase of fluid concentration (from 28% to 39%) during the flow advance. The total estimated volume of eroded and deposited material range from ∼14850m3 to ∼18890m3. The volume of liquid water required to generate one gully ranges from 4450m3 to 6900m3. The calculated results for Martian gullies are consistent with terrestrial studies on debris flows. Based on a morphological description and on the estimated physical parameters, we propose a model for gully formation on Martian dunes. The melt water from near-surface ground ice is incorporated in the debris flow and water concentration increases during its propagation. The increase of water concentration in the debris flow can be explained by a progressive increase of water/ice content in the permafrost downstream. Consequently, the lack of a final deposit at the front of the gullies tends to demonstrate that the flow became relatively highly concentrated in liquid downstream and all the water could have been lost in the final stage of the flow. This process could explain the lack of terminal lobes at the front of the gullies. We conclude that a process of formation similar to terrestrial debris flows is plausible. The large amount of liquid water involved requires formation of Martian gullies on dunes during a warmer climatic episode.

Seasonal activity and morphological changes in martian gullies

Recent studies of martian dune and non-dune gullies have suggested a seasonal control on present-day gully activity. The timing of current gully activity, especially activity involving the formation or modification of channels (which commonly have been taken as evidence of fluvial processes), has important implications regarding likely gully formation processes and necessary environmental conditions. In this study, we describe the results of frequent meter-scale monitoring of several active gully sites by the High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO). The aim is to better assess the scope and nature of current morphological changes and to provide improved constraints on timing of gully activity on both dune and non-dune slopes. Our observations indicate that (1) gully formation on Mars is ongoing today and (2) the most significant morphological changes are strongly associated with seasonal frost and defrosting activity. Observed changes include formation of all major components of typical gully landforms, although we have not observed alcove formation in coherent bedrock. These results reduce the need to invoke recent climate change or present-day groundwater seepage to explain the many martian gullies with pristine appearance.

Spectral and petrologic analyses of basaltic sands in Ka'u Desert (Hawaii) – implications for the dark dunes on Mars

ABSTRACTDark aeolian deposits on Mars are thought to consist of volcanic materials due to their mineral assemblages, which are common to basalts. However, the sediment source is still debated. Basaltic dunes on Earth are promising analogs for providing further insights into the assumed basaltic sand dunes on Mars. In our study we characterize basaltic dunes from the Ka'u Desert in Hawaii using optical microscopes, electron microprobe, and spectral analyses. We compare the spectra of terrestrial and Martian dune sands to determine possible origins of the Martian dark sediments. Our results show that the terrestrial sands consist primarily of medium to coarse sand‐sized volcanic glass and rock fragments as well as olivine, pyroxene, and plagioclase minerals. Grain shapes range from angular to subrounded. The sample composition indicates that the material was derived from phreatomagmatic eruptions partially with additional proportions of rock fragments from local lava flows. Grain shape and size indicate the materials were transported by aeolian processes rather than by fluvial processes. Spectral analyses reveal an initial hydration of all terrestrial samples. A spectral mineralogical correlation between the terrestrial and Martian aeolian sands shows a similarity consistent with an origin from volcanic ash and lava. We suggest that the Martian deposits may contain similar abundances of volcanic glass, which has not yet been distinguished in Martian spectral data. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Dune fields on Mars: Recorders of a climate change?

Dunes have similar morphologies on the Earth and Mars. The main differences between Martian and terrestrial dunes are their size, which is larger on Mars, and their duration of formation, which is longer on Mars. As the characteristic time of Martian dunes is in the same order as that of the Martian climatic oscillations, Martian dunes could be recorders of past winds regimes and past climates. In order to test this hypothesis, we performed a morphological study of 550 dune fields with high resolution images and we inferred the directions of the dune formative winds from the orientation of the dune slip faces. Our study shows that 310 dune fields record one to four distinct wind directions with some geometric patterns that do not exist on the Earth such as barchans built by opposite wind directions coexisting in the same dune field. Our study demonstrates that the inferred formative wind directions are only partially in agreement with the current wind-patterns predicted by General Circulation Models (GCM). Several possible causes for the misalignment between dunes and GCM outputs are discussed: these include the local variation of the global circulation due to local topographic effects or the possibility that these dunes could be in a transient geometry or fossil. Such bedforms are considered indeed to be not in equilibrium with the present-day atmospheric conditions. This latter hypothesis is supported by the presence, in some ergs, of closely spaced dunes showing nearly opposite slip face orientations. Therefore, we propose that Martian dune fields are constituted, in some cases, by active and fossil dunes and therefore have the potential to preserve information on paleoclimates over extensive periods.

Automated Detection of Martian Dune Fields

An approach for the automated detection of dune fields on remotely sensed images of the surface of Mars is presented in this letter. It is based on the extraction of local information from images (i.e., gradient features), which, in turn, is tested with boosting and support vector machine classifiers. A detection rate of about 95% is obtained for fivefold cross validation on a set of 78 panchromatic images captured by the Mars Orbiter Camera of the Mars Global Surveyor probe on different locations of the planet.

Viscous liquid film flow on dune slopes of Mars

It is shown that viscous liquid film flow (VLF-flow) on the surfaces of slopes of martian dunes can be a low-temperature rheological phenomenon active today on high latitudes. A quantitative model indicates that the VLF-flows are consistent with the flow of liquid brines similar to that observed by imaging at the Phoenix landing site. VLF-flows depend on the viscosity, dynamics, and energetics of temporary darkened liquid brines. The darkening of the flowing brine is possibly, at least partially, attributed to non-volatile ingredients of the liquid brines. Evidence of previous VLF-flows can also be seen on the dunes, suggesting that it is an ongoing process that also occurred in the recent past.

Martian dunes form in rare bursts

Martian dunes form in rare bursts

Reply to “Comment on ‘Minimal size of a barchan dune’ ”

We reply to the preceding comment by Andreotti and Claudin [Phys. Rev. E 76, 063301 (2007)] on our paper [Phys. Rev. E 75, 011301 (2007)]. We show that the equations of the dune model used in our calculations are self-consistent and effectively lead to a dependence of the minimal dune size on the wind speed through the saturation length. Furthermore, we show that Meridiani Planum ripples are probably not a good reference to estimate the grain size of Martian dune sands: the soil in the ripple troughs at the landing site is covered with nonerodible elements (``blueberries''), which increase the minimal threshold for saltation by a factor of 2.0. We conclude that, in the absence of large fragments as the ones found at the landing site, basaltic grains of diameter $d=500\ifmmode\pm\else\textpm\fi{}100\text{ }\ensuremath{\mu}\text{m}$ that compose the large, typical dark Martian dunes [K. S. Edgett and P. R. Christensen, J. Geophys. Res. 96, 22765 (1991)] probably saltate during the strongest storms on Mars. We also show that the wind friction speed ${u}_{\ensuremath{\ast}}\ensuremath{\approx}3.0\text{ }\text{m}/\text{s}$ that we found from the calculations of Martian dunes is within the values of maximum wind speeds that occur during Martian storms a few times a decade [R. E. Arvidson et al., Science 222, 463 (1983); H. J. Moore, J. Geophys. Res. 90, 163 (1985); R. Sullivan et al., Nature (London) 436, 58 (2005); D. J. Jerolmack et al., J. Geophys. Res. 111, E12S02 (2006)]. In this manner, the dune model predicts that Martian dunes can be formed under present Martian conditions, with no need to assume other conditions of wind and atmosphere that could have prevailed in the past.

Comment on “Minimal size of a barchan dune”

It is now an accepted fact that the size at which dunes form from a flat sand bed as well as their "minimal size" scales on the flux saturation length. This length is by definition the relaxation length of the slowest mode toward equilibrium transport. The model presented by Parteli, Durán, and Herrmann [Phys. Rev. E 75, 011301 (2007)] predicts that the saturation length decreases to zero as the inverse of the wind shear stress far from the threshold. We first show that their model is not self-consistent: even under large wind, the relaxation rate is limited by grain inertia and thus cannot decrease to zero. A key argument presented by these authors comes from the discussion of the typical dune wavelength on Mars (650 m) on the basis of which they refute the scaling of the dune size with the drag length evidenced by Claudin and Andreotti [Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 252, 30 (2006)]. They instead propose that Martian dunes, composed of large grains (500 microm), were formed in the past under very strong winds. We emphasize that this saltating grain size, estimated from thermal diffusion measurements, is far from straightforward. Moreover, the microscopic photographs taken by the rovers on Martian Aeolian bedforms show a grain size of 87+/-25 microm together with hematite spherules at millimeter scale. As those so-called "blueberries" cannot be entrained more frequently than a few hours per century, we conclude that the saltating grains on Mars are the small ones, which gives a second strong argument against the model of Parteli.

Dune formation on the present Mars

We apply a model for sand dunes to calculate formation of dunes on Mars under the present Martian atmospheric conditions. We find that different dune shapes as those imaged by Mars Global Surveyor could have been formed by the action of sand-moving winds occurring on today's Mars. Our calculations show, however, that Martian dunes could be only formed due to the higher efficiency of Martian winds in carrying grains into saltation. The model equations are solved to study saltation transport under different atmospheric conditions valid for Mars. We obtain an estimate for the wind speed and migration velocity of barchan dunes at different places on Mars. From comparison with the shape of bimodal sand dunes, we find an estimate for the time scale of the changes in Martian wind regimes.

A scaling law for aeolian dunes on Mars, Venus, Earth, and for subaqueous ripples

The linear stability analysis of the equations governing the evolution of a flat sand bed submitted to a turbulent shear flow predicts that the wavelength λ at which the bed destabilises to form dunes should scale with the drag length Ldrag=ρsρfd. This scaling law is tested using existing and new measurements performed in water (subaqueous ripples), in air (aeolian dunes and fresh snow dunes), in a high pressure CO2 wind tunnel reproducing conditions close to Venus' atmosphere and in the low pressure CO2 Martian atmosphere (Martian dunes). The difficulty is to determine the diameter of saltating grains on Mars. A first estimate comes from photographs of aeolian ripples taken by the rovers Opportunity and Spirit, showing grains whose diameters are smaller than on Earth dunes. In addition we calculate the effect of cohesion and viscosity on the dynamic and static transport thresholds. It confirms that the small grains visualised by the rovers should be grains experiencing saltation. Finally, we show that, within error bars, the scaling of λ with Ldrag holds over almost five decades. We conclude with a discussion on the time scales and velocities at which these bed instabilities develop and propagate on Mars.

Thermal properties of sand from Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES) and Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS): Spatial variations within the Proctor Crater dune field on Mars

Thermal inertia, a parameter calculated from surface temperatures obtained from spacecraft, has long been used to quantify the amount of loose, fine‐grained material on the Martian surface. With little “ground truth” available, studies often refer to Martian dune fields to calibrate thermal inertias. The well‐understood physical properties of dune sand make it an ideal basis for comparison to more complex surfaces. However, higher‐resolution data sets available from the TES (Thermal Emission Spectrometer onboard Mars Global Surveyor) and THEMIS (Thermal Emission Imaging System onboard Mars Odyssey) show spatial variations in the thermal properties within dune fields, calling into question their effectiveness as controls for thermal inertia studies. In order to explain these variations, we apply a thermal model developed for TES data to a commonly investigated dune field in Noachis Terra, that on the floor of Proctor Crater. We show that in this dune field, the thermal variations on the scale of 30 J m−2 s−0.5 K−1 are present and correlate spatially with aeolian features in the dune field. These variations correspond to three types of surfaces observed in the Mars Orbital Camera Narrow Angle (MOC NA) images: (1) dune sand, (2) interdunes exposing the surface underlying the dune field, and (3) sand‐covered interdunes, or dune troughs. Both the interdunes and the dune troughs have cooler nighttime temperatures than the dune sand, corresponding to lower thermal inertia values. The dune troughs may be sand‐covered areas with either minor amounts of dust accumulation or a mean sand grain size lower than that of dune sand. Because fine sand grains tend to preferentially accumulate on dune crests rather than in dune troughs, the second hypothesis is considered less likely than the first. This has implications for the recent sedimentary history of the dune field: Dust accumulation in dune troughs may imply that sand saltation is not prevalent enough to scour away all of the dust settling out from suspension in the atmosphere; however, it is prevalent enough to keep the dunes crests themselves clear of dust.

Flood-formed dunes in Athabasca Valles, Mars: morphology, modeling, and implications

Estimates of discharge for martian outflow channels have spanned orders of magnitude due in part to uncertainties in floodwater height. A methodology of estimating discharge based on bedforms would reduce some of this uncertainty. Such a methodology based on the morphology and granulometry of flood-formed (‘diluvial’) dunes has been developed by Carling (1996b, in: Branson, J., Brown, A.G., Gregory, K.J. (Eds.), Global Continental Changes: The Context of Palaeohydrology. Geological Society Special Publication No. 115, London, UK, 165–179) and applied to Pleistocene flood-formed dunes in Siberia. Transverse periodic dune-like bedforms in Athabasca Valles, Mars, have previously been classified both as flood-formed dunes and as antidunes. Either interpretation is important, as they both imply substantial quantities of water, but each has different hydraulic implications. We undertook photoclinometric measurements of these forms, and compared them with data from flood-formed dunes in Siberia. Our analysis of those data shows their morphology to be more consistent with dunes than antidunes, thus providing the first documentation of flood-formed dunes on Mars. Other reasoning based on context and likely hydraulics also supports the bedforms' classification as dunes. Evidence does not support the dunes being aeolian, although a conclusive determination cannot be made with present data. Given the preponderance of evidence that the features are flood-formed instead of aeolian, we applied Carling's (1996b, in: Branson, J., Brown, A.G., Gregory, K.J. (Eds.), Global Continental Changes: The Context of Palaeohydrology. Geological Society Special Publication No. 115, London, UK, 165–179) dune-flow model to derive the peak discharge of the flood flow that formed them. The resultant estimate is approximately 2×10 6 m 3/s, similar to previous estimates. The size of the Athabascan dunes' in comparison with that of terrestrial dunes suggests that these martian dunes took at least 1–2 days to grow. Their flattened morphology implies that they were formed at high subcritical flow and that the flood flow that formed them receded very quickly.

Debris flows over sand dunes on Mars: Evidence for liquid water

This study focuses on the formation and physical properties of the gullies observed over large Martian dunes, especially those of the Russell crater (54°S, 347°W). Geomorphic features like sinuosities and connections of the channels show that gullies over dunes involve flows with a significant proportion of liquid. The occurrence of levees implies that these flows are debris flows with a yield strength characteristics of Bingham plastic materials. We apply terrestrial methods to estimate viscosity and velocity of these flows from levee size and sinuosities. We obtain average velocities in the range of 1 to 7 m s−1 and apparent viscosities of 2.8 to 46,000 Pa s, with an average at 740 Pa s, compared with the 0.001 Pa s of pure water. These viscosities and velocities are in the range of terrestrial debris flows with a proportion of 10 to 40% of H2O. These properties are typical of water‐holding debris flows but not of pure water surface runoff or CO2 driven flows. The debris flows over dunes are oriented on south‐facing slopes like other recent gullies. Meltwater from ground ice formed during a recent period of high obliquity is the more likely explanation for the formation of such flows over dunes.