Marsabit District Research Articles

Effects of livestock herd migration on child schooling in Marsabit District, Kenya

To throw light on the challenge of providing education to pastoral households in the context of social and economic change, this study investigates the effects of herd migration on child schooling in Northern Kenya. Specifically, the analysis uses both household panel data and community-level focus-group data to identify the barriers to schooling, which include an insufficient number of schools, nomadism and communal conflicts. The results also reveal that herd migration has a significantly negative effect on school attendance – about a 26% probability of failure to attend among the children of livestock migrating households. The child’s age and mother’s literacy have a positive impact on child school attendance, but with girls more likely to attend than boys, probably because of higher opportunity costs. That is, attending school takes boys away from activities like herding, which have greater economic value than the nonmonetisable household duties performed by girls.

Effects of drought on child health in Marsabit District, Northern Kenya

This study uses five years of panel data (2009–2013) for Northern Kenya’s Marsabit district to analyze the levels and extent of malnutrition among children aged five and under in that area. We measure drought based on the standardized normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and assess its effect on child health using mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC). The results show that approximately 20 percent of the children in the study area are malnourished and a one standard deviation increase in NDVI z-score decreases the probability of child malnourishment by 12–16 percent. These findings suggest that remote sensing data can be usefully applied to develop and evaluate new interventions to reduce drought effects on child malnutrition, including better coping strategies and improved targeting of food aid.

Income and Asset Poverty among Pastoralists in Northern Kenya

ABSTRACTIn this study we use household panel data collected in Marsabit district of Northern Kenya, to analyse the patterns of livelihood sources and poverty among pastoralists in that area. We estimate income poverty using imputed household income relative to the adjusted poverty line and asset poverty using a regression-based asset index and tropical livestock units (TLU) per capita. Our results indicate that keeping livestock is still the pastoralists’ main source of livelihood, although there is a notable trend of increasing livelihood diversification, especially among livestock-poor households. The majority of households (over 70%) are both income and livestock-poor with few having escaped poverty within the five-year study period. Disaggregating income and asset poverty also reveals an increasing trend of both structurally poor and stochastically nonpoor households. The findings show that the TLU-based asset poverty is a more appropriate measure of asset poverty in a pastoral setting.

An age for Kajong, a Miocene fossil site east of Lake Turkana, Kenya

The Kajong Formation in Marsabit District, northern Kenya has yielded a Miocene mammalian fauna consisting of nine taxa. It is capped by a basalt 40Ar/39Ar dated at 19.1 ± 0.1 Ma, and a volcanic clast from a conglomerate within the formation yielded an age of 20.3 Ma, only slightly older. The entire fauna from this site thus lies close to the base of the Miocene Epoch and is older than 19.2 Ma. The site has yielded some of the oldest examples of Archaeobelodon filholi, Prodeinotherium hobleyi, and Gomphotherium sp. in east Africa.

Rain and Raids Revisited: Disaggregating Ethnic Group Livestock Raiding in the Ethiopian-Kenyan Border Region

Focusing on livestock raiding, a major form of violence in arid and semiarid regions, we evaluate the relationship between rainfall and intensity of violence, disaggregating ethnic groups that have somewhat different subsistence patterns. We do so to try to resolve previously published results and conclusions that appear contradictory – some research finding livestock violence higher in wet times suggestive of more violence in times of plenty; others finding violence higher in dry times suggestive of greater scarcity. Using rainfall from NASA and violence data from ACLED for the years 1998–2009, we looked at the patterns of livestock-related violence for six different ethnic groups that have a home in the area in and around Marsabit district of Kenya. Different ethnic groups appear to have somewhat different patterns and we suggest how some of their cultural differences may explain these patterns. However, for most groups, intense violence is more common in drier times.

Chronic undernutrition and traditional weaning foods are associated with fat stores in ariaal infants of Northern Kenya

The high proportion of human infant fat is hypothesized to protect infant brains by mobilizing against growth disturbances caused by acute nutritional and pathogen stress during weaning. However, individuals who experience chronic nutritional stress have been shown to store fat rather than mobilize fat stores, although this has not been demonstrated during infancy. This study investigated the relationship between fat development, diet, and nutritional status among 239 breastfeeding Ariaal infants, a group of settled pastoralists who experience both acute and chronic nutritional stress residing in Marsabit District, Kenya. This study had three goals: 1) To investigate the pattern of fat accumulation among Ariaal infants compared with a reference population; 2) to explore the relationship between chronic nutritional stress and fat deposits; and 3) to determine the relationship between traditional weaning foods, particularly cow's milk, and infant's fat. Infants, particularly infants experiencing chronic nutritional stress, were found to accumulate fat deposits in a manner that suggests reduced oxidation of fat stores. Infant upper arm fat area significantly increases with age over the weaning period compared with reference populations, who show a decline in body fat. Chronically undernourished infants were particularly likely to have increased levels of upper arm fat compared with normal infants or acutely undernourished infants. In addition, infants who consume cow's milk are significantly fatter than those that do not. These results suggest that Ariaal infants have both physiological and cultural mechanisms for fat storage in the face of their nutritionally stressed environment.

Insuring Against Drought‐Related Livestock Mortality: Piloting Index Based Livestock Insurance in Northern Kenya

Climate related shocks are among the leading cause of production and efficiency losses in smallholder crop and livestock production in rural Africa. Consequently, the identification of tools to help manage the risks associated with climactic extremities is increasingly considered to be amongst the key pillars of any agenda to enhance agricultural growth and welfare in rural Africa. This paper describes the application of a promising innovation in insurance design – index‐based insurance – that seeks to bring the benefits of formal insurance to help manage the weather‐related risks faced by rural crop and livestock producers in low‐income countries. In particular, we highlight the research and development agenda of a comprehensive effort to design commercially viable index‐based livestock insurance aimed at protecting the pastoral populations of Northern Kenya from the considerable drought‐related livestock mortality risk that they face. Detailing the conditions that make the pastoral economy in Northern Kenya an ideal candidate for the provision of index‐based insurance products, the paper describes the contract design, defines its structure, offers analysis that indicates a high likelihood of commercial sustainability among the target market and describes the process of implementation leading up to the launch of a pilot in Marsabit district of Northern Kenya in early 2010.

Livestock Raiding and Rainfall Variability in Northwestern Kenya

In 2009, Witsenburg and Adano summarized their research on rainfall variability and livestock raiding in Marsabit District, Kenya. They found that livestock-related violence was higher in wetter months and wetter years, contrary to the common assumption that scarcity of water and pasture is the primary driver of livestock violence. Our research, focusing on the neighboring Turkana District of northwestern Kenya, attempted to replicate the Witsenburg and Adano findings for the years 1998–2009. We find significant relationships between rainfall variability and intensity of livestock violence, but in the opposite direction – drier months and drought years in Turkana District have higher intensities of violence.

Pathways and Barriers to Condom Use Among Ariaal Agro-pastoralists of Northern Kenya

Recent sexual behavior surveys in the Ariaal community of Karare, Marsabit District, northern Kenya, indicate a rapid increase in male condom use among unmarried men and women. Increased condom use stems from the Kenyan government’s expanding HIV/AIDS programs to the remote parts of northern Kenya, resulting in easier access to condoms. This paper employs a modified reasoned action approach model to analyze 2009 survey data to understand how Ariaal sexual culture adapts to this policy. Univariate analysis indicates that for unmarried men and women, condom use is more strongly linked to pre-marital fertility prevention than HIV/AIDS protection, reflecting the long-standing Ariaal proscriptive norm against pre-marital fertility. Multiple regression and path analysis show gender-specific pathways to condom use, reflecting established and emergent sexual behavior. For women, significant pathways include the ability to obtain condoms and to refuse sex without condoms. For men, social norms and beliefs/attitudes including concern for their sexual partners are important pathways.

HIV/AIDS risk and worry in Northern Kenya

Data from a 2003 survey of sexual behaviour (n = 400) conducted in the Ariaal community of Karare, Marsabit District, northern Kenya, were used to delineate patterns of risk and worry about contracting HIV/AIDS. Despite widespread reporting of high-risk sexual behaviours (including multiple partners, concurrency, sexual mixing and not using condoms) by survey participants, logistic regression analysis found only one statistically significant positive association between these behaviours and self-assessment of being at high risk of contracting HIV/AIDS. In contrast, log-linear analysis of worry patterns found highly significant relationships between self-assessment of high risk of HIV/AIDS and worry about one's partner's sexual behaviour. These findings indicate that in relation to contracting HIV/AIDS currently Ariaal are more concerned about the sexual behaviour of others, rather than their own behaviour. More generally, results point to the potential for combining concepts of worry with risk assessment in HIV/AIDS research to generate insights into how both concepts are linked to individual, dyadic and population-level factors within specific cultural settings.

Valuing goat genetic resources: a pro-poor growth strategy in the Kenyan semi-arid tropics

Goats, "the poor man's cow", provide very important genetic resources that can be exploited for continued improvements of the livelihoods of poor livestock keepers in the semi-arid tropics. This study presents the evaluation of the economic values of goat genetic resources (GGRs) in terms of the important non-market traits embedded in goats and how this information can be utilised to improve livelihoods in semi-arid regions. The results obtained from mixed logit models derived from stated choice data collected from 314 respondents in the semi-arid Marsabit district of Kenya reveal that disease resistance is the most highly valued trait whose resultant augmentation results into a welfare improvement of up to KShs.2899. Drought tolerance and milk traits were found to be implicitly valued at KShs.2620 and 1179 respectively. The study further revealed that improvement in milk trait in does, body size and disease resistance traits in bucks, and drought tolerance trait in both does and bucks will collectively improve the producers' welfare hence should be given priority. However, improvement in the reproduction and production ("overall body condition/ meatiness" trait) potential of goats will be worthwhile only if issues concerning access to pasture and water resources are addressed prior and simultaneously.

Economic valuation of sheep genetic resources: implications for sustainable utilization in the Kenyan semi-arid tropics

Sheep, recognised as one of the important livestock species especially in the semi-arid tropics with high genetic resource potentials, can be exploited through sustainable utilization in order to improve livestock keepers' livelihoods. This study presents the evaluation of the economic values of sheep genetic resources (SGR) in terms of the important non-market traits embedded in sheep and how this information can be utilised to improve livelihoods in semi-arid regions. The results obtained from mixed logit models results derived from stated choice data collected from 157 respondents in the semi-arid Marsabit district of Kenya reveal that disease resistance is the most highly valued trait whose resultant increment results into a welfare improvement of up to KShs.1537. Drought tolerance and fat deposition traits were found to be implicitly valued at KShs.694 and 738 respectively. The results further point out that for livestock stakeholders to effectively improve the livelihoods of poor livestock-keepers, development strategies for improving the management and/or utilisation of SGR in terms of drought tolerance, should not only be tailor made to target regions that are frequently devastated by drought but should also succeed other strategies or efforts that would first lead to the improvement of producers' economic status.

As pastoralists settle: social, health, and economic consequences of pastoral sedentarization in Marsabit district, Kenya – Edited by Elliot Fratkin & Eric Abella Roth

As pastoralists settle: social, health, and economic consequences of pastoral sedentarization in Marsabit district, Kenya – Edited by Elliot Fratkin & Eric Abella Roth

Occurrence of a Severe Acute Livestock Poisoning by Borehole Water in Marsabit District, Kenya A Case Study

This article reports on an outbreak of acute livestock poisoning by borehole water that occurred at Kargi in Marsabit District, Kenya in 2000. The borehole had been out of use for 3 years and after its rehabilitation, 7,000 animals died within a day after drinking the water. The most affected were shoats, cattle, camels and dogs with mortalities of up to 90%. Donkeys and humans were only mildly affected with no deaths reported. Clinical signs occurred within 1 hour after drinking the water. Initially, the animals displayed increased frequency of urination, followed by symptoms of respiratory insufficiency, comprising of dyspnea, cyanosis, rapid and weak pulse and general weakness. The signs progressed into methemoglobinuria, sever pain, trebling, convulsions, collapse, coma, and death within hours. Rapid decomposition, brown discoloration of mucous membranes, gastrointestinal tract corrosion and cooked appearance of visceral organs were observed at postmortem. Water samples that were collected from the borehole and neighboring wells contained arsenic (0.2 –66.8 ppm), selenium (1.1 –4.4 ppm) < lead (0.01-0.02 ppm) and nitrates (450-950 ppm) and other contaminants. The deaths were probably due to nitrate poisoning. The Kenya Veterinarian Vol. 28 2005: pp. 16-19

:As Pastoralists Settle: Social, Health, and Economic Consequences of Pastoral Sedentarization in Marsabit District, Kenya

As Pastoralists Settle: Social, Health, and Economic Consequences of Pastoral Sedentarization in Marsabit District, Kenya. Elliot Fratkin and Eric Abella Roth, eds. New York: Kluwer Academic, 2005. 280 pp.

Anthropology &amp; Sociology - Elliot Fratkin and Eric Abella Roth, eds. As Pastoralists Settle: Social, Health, and Economic Consequences of Pastoral Sedentarization in Marsabit District Kenya. New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2005. x + 280 pp. Photographs. Maps. Figures. Tables. Bibliography. Index. $89.95. Cloth.

Elliot Fratkin and Eric Abella Roth, eds. As Pastoralists Settle: Social, Health, and Economic Consequences of Pastoral Sedentarization in Marsabit District, Kenya. New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2005. x + 280 pp. Photographs. Maps. Figures. Tables. Bibliography. Index. $89.95. Cloth. As Pastoralists Settle launches a new series by Kluwer dedicated to studies of human-environmental dynamics and modeled after the journal Human Ecology. Elliot Fratkin, a cultural anthropologist, and Eric Abella Roth, a demographic anthropologist, lead this collaborative effort as the book's editors and chief contributors. Together with Martha A. Nathan, they have conducted longitudinal research on bio-social concomitants of sedentism (3) among Rendille and Ariaal pastoralists in Marsabit District, Kenya. Thirteen chapters describe this research, along with that conducted by other contributors with expertise in northern Kenyan pastoral studies: Bettina Shell-Duncan and Masako Fujita (biological anthropology); John Galaty, Peter Little, and Kevin Smith (social anthropology); H. Jurgen Schwartz (veterinary biology); John McPeak (economics); Wario Adano and Karen Witsenburg (geography); Leunita Auko Muruli, Elizabeth Ngugi, and Walter Obungu Obiero (public health); David Wiseman (medicine); and Joan Harris (nursing). Although the book focuses on five Rendille and Ariaal communities, some chapters include other pastoral and/or neighboring groups. The opening three chapters provide a general context for the historical fact that pastoralists throughout East Africa and elsewhere have become increasingly sedentary. They include summaries of the expected: population growth, drought and famine (as well as external aid responses to such conditions), loss of common property resources, commoditization, urban migration, ethnic clashes, political turmoil, civil war, and state intervention. McPeak and Little note that processes of sedentarization have been ongoing for the past two millennia in semi-arid and arid regions (87), while Galaty paraphrases Ibn Khaldun's six-hundred-year-old lamentation about the decline of nomadic and the morality, fortitude, and social cohesiveness undermined by the inexorable change... to sedentary life (53). In sum, sedentarization of pastoralists is by no means a new phenomenon or necessarily a desired moral evolution. But, as the authors rightfully claim, moving into town is not necessarily a lasting commitment or an antipastoral one, either. This latter point complements the book's major theme: people living in households engaged to some degree in nomadic livestock herding realize greater nutritional and health benefits, on average, than those in the study's settled communities. It should be noted, however, that many of the study's town dwellers ended up settled near mission and NGO-founded centers because of livestock loss due to drought, disease, and/or raiding. Thus, many of the informants were poor when they settled and were, in effect, partially subsidized by those missions and NGOs. Still, the authors demonstrate, living in towns can lead to increased opportunities in schoolbased education, wage employment, crop-based food security, and possibly gender equity. …

As Pastoralists Settle: Social, Health and Economic Consequences of Pastoral Sedentarization in Marsabit District, Kenya

As Pastoralists Settle: Social, Health and Economic Consequences of Pastoral Sedentarization in Marsabit District, Kenya

Kenya: Conflict in the ‘Badlands’: The Turbi massacre in Marsabit district

Before dawn on 12 July 2005, about 1,000 heavily armed bandits made a series of raids in the Didigalgalo-Turbi area some 130 kilometres from Marsabit Town. At least 53 people, including 21 primary school children, were killed. The bandits left a trail of destruction at the trading centre and Turbi boarding primary school and burned to the ground the nearby group of dwellings. Area residents narrated how the armed raiders surrounded them and went for the primary school where Class Eight pupils had gone for their morning preps. They recounted how nine pupils from the primary school were sprayed with bullets in cold blood as they huddled together on the dusty floor of the houses where they had sought refuge. An elderly woman residing in one of the two houses was also killed. Others were hacked to death by panga-wielding raiders whose intentions appear to have been aimed at massacring the entire village. An infant had his head smashed on a rock. More than 100 people were badly injured some and were rushed to hospital in Marsabit Town by traders.

Self-deception does not explain high-risk sexual behavior in the face of HIV/AIDS: A test from northern Kenya

Throughout sub-Saharan Africa, there is resistance to changing sexual behavior despite survey data indicating high levels of knowledge about HIV transmission patterns and high-risk behavior. Previous explanations for this paradox emphasize indigenous cultural models. An alternative explanation is that, due to a strong natural selection for sexual gratification, individuals evoke the evolved trait of self-deception to continue practicing high-risk sexual behavior. This alternative is tested using survey data from an Ariaal community in Marsabit District, northern Kenya. Results indicate that respondents make highly accurate self-assessments of HIV risk, negating the concept of self-deception in this study. These results are discussed within the larger context of the applicability of evolutionary theory to the AIDS pandemic.

Calculating NDVI for NOAA/AVHRR data after atmospheric correction for extensive images using 6S code: A case study in the Marsabit District, Kenya

A detailed atmospheric correction method for NOAA/AVHRR images using 6S code, easily accessible data sets, and the images themselves is proposed. The parameters that 6S requires (aerosol optical depth, precipitable water, ozone content, and elevation) were obtained using data from the images, the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer, and the GTOPO30 elevation data set, with reference to existing studies. The proposed methodology is validated through a case study of the Marsabit District, northern Kenya, which includes a broad range of precipitation, elevation, and vegetation types. The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) of desert, grassland, and forested areas from August 1987 to August 1988 was calculated after making the atmospheric correction. The intercept of the regression line, between the reflectance of before and after correction, is almost the same for each land cover type; while the slope is around 1.7 to 1.8 for grassland/bushland, it is smaller in the desert, where the range of the NDVI is limited. The NDVI in dense vegetation is more sensitive to the atmospheric correction, which is a result of the effect of path radiance. After the atmospheric correction, the range of NDVI increased, with the characteristic that the greater the NDVI, the larger was the atmospheric effect. In the case study, as well, the NDVI increased after the atmospheric correction, especially in pixels with initially high NDVI. A more detailed, entirely pixel-by-pixel, atmospheric correction requires individual pixel information for aerosol optical depth and precipitable water. This will be possible using data collected by the recent sensors such as MODIS.