Married Working Women Research Articles

Related factors on Fatigue Symptom in Married Working women.

OBJECTIVESTo investigate the related factors on fatigue symptoms among married working women. METHODSData was analyzed from a cross-sectional survey of 902 married working women. Information was obtained about fatigue symptoms, sociodemographics, health behaviors, and job-related characteristics. Multiple regression tested the related factors on fatigue symptoms in married working women. RESULTSFatigue was more common in office working women than in manufacture working women. Mean fatigue symptom was significantly higher in office working than in manufacture working women(p=0.002). In a multiple regression analysis, fatigue was associated with educational level, alcohol drinking state, stress, and overtime work in a multiple regression analysis(p<0.001). CONCLUSIONSOur findings suggest that fatigue is affected by job-related factor like overtime work with educational level, alcohol drinking state, or stress. Further research will be needed to establish preventive strategies for controlling the negative effects of fatigue on health stats of married working women.

Off-Farm Labor Participation Decisions of Married Farm Couples and the Role of Government Payments

The determinants of off-farm work by married farm couples are examined using data from the 2004 Agricultural Resource Management Survey and multinomial logistic regression. Expected government payment is found important in decreasing the likelihood of off-farm work strategies involving work by the husband only or by both husband and wife relative to a strategy of no work by either husband or wife. The marginal impact of government payments on the probability of the wife working off farm alone is found positive suggesting the possibility of nonpecuniary motives for off-farm employment for 21% of farm households in the selected weighted sample.

The Social Costs of Career Success for Women

Women in the workforce, especially those in professional and management positions, are doubly burdened by social traditions that expect workers to meet masculine standards at the office while maintaining their feminine role of nurturer at home. This article studies the social costs of female career progression using a survey of 1,600 respondents from different levels of the public sector. The results show that working women have an increased incidence of being single or divorced, married working women tend to have more housework responsibilities, and working women have fewer children or are childless. The article concludes that government and business organizations need to pay serious attention to this hidden problem of social costs that affect women and men disproportionately.

Personal Consumption by Husbands and Wives

In wrongful death damages, personal consumption dollars represent the portion of total household expenditures that are exclusive to the decedent. Most of the personal consumption estimates in the forensic economic literature are computed from Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) published tables of Consumer Expenditure Survey (CEX) data. Those tables delineate, by household size and income, the average total dollars spent on approximately 20 summary expenditure groupings.1 Ireland and Depperschmidt (1999) presented a compilation of personal consumption articles that rely on such CEX summary table data with recent like-articles being written by Ajwa, Martin and Vavoulis (2000) and Ruble, Patton, and Nelson (2004). Trout and Foster (1993) and Scoggins (2001) both used the CEX Interview microdata to compute personal consumption estimates specific to husbands and wives. Unfortunately, those two studies ignored the Diary part of the CEX which includes significant household expenditures relevant to personal consumption and they continued to use the BLS’s summary group tabulations of each household’s expenditures. This paper uses CEX microdata to provide new personal consumption estimates for husbands and wives by their work status and by the number of children living in the home. Instead of relying on summary expenditures, all 700 micro-expenditure items within the CEX Interview and Diary surveys are incorporated into the analysis. Like Trout and Foster and Scoggins, the expenditure data is specific to husbands and wives, but this study goes further by using all of the CEX Interview and Diary microdata instead of just summary Interview data. Husband and wife specific data, by work status and number of children living at home, are important delineations in reliably computing personal consumption applicable to the loss of wage earnings of a married person. Assume the case of a wrongful death of a working married male living only with his wife. If a traditional two-person household personal consumption table were used to offset the husband’s earnings loss, such an analysis would mix the expenditure data of working and retired husbands and wives along with mixing in the data of households consisting of two single persons or one single person living with a child, etc. Another problem with studies based on summary tables is that total expenditures are usually shown to exceed income at the lower income levels. That result is not necessarily a fault of the CEX, but its presenta-

The Pleasures of Abandonment: Jean Paul and the Life of Humor (review)

Reviewed by: The Pleasures of Abandonment: Jean Paul and the Life of Humor Robert Combs Paul Fleming, The Pleasures of Abandonment: Jean Paul and the Life of Humor. Würzburg: Königshausen and Neumann, 2006. 170 pp. In this succinct, elegant study, Paul Fleming simultaneously places Jean Paul in the context of his time, argues persuasively that he belongs to ours as well, and goes through the major texts, carefully clarifying Jean Paul's metaphysics of humor. It is sobering to discover how well known and admired Jean Paul was in his lifetime, how many twentieth-century intellectuals have paid homage to him, and yet how little known he is today, especially in the English-speaking world. Fleming's book is a welcome corrective to this situation, with its many quotations, all translated, its own beautiful, meticulous commentary—there is not a weak sentence in the book—, and its innate feeling for the material. This is a book to savor and enjoy and, in a world where works by Jean Paul are hard to come by, an excellent introduction to his thought. Fleming argues that for Jean Paul, as for Nietzsche and Freud, humor defines the human condition in relation to its own existential plight, consisting of "abandonment" on the one hand and infinity on the other because of man's inescapable experience of the world through imagination. Jean Paul's mischievous take on this perennial dilemma, articulated first in The Life of the Cheerful Little Schoolmaster Maria Wutz, is to champion the finite or the small as a path to the infinite, the only path. Humor is, for Jean Paul, the "inverted sublime" (20), [End Page 238] a compensation for the idea-dominated aesthetics of the nineteenth century, and thus, for Stefan George and others, a proper balance, more than Schiller, to the monumental Goethe (14). Thus humor, especially "black humor" becomes the sine qua non of modern art, bridging the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Jean Paul's theology, expressed in the bestseller Hesperus and The Speech of the Dead Christ, is audacious and ironic. A belief in immortality makes of the earth a paradise; but merely believing in the earth as such achieves nothing, any more than believing in immortality means that there is "really" any such thing, in an objective sense. Something of a fool saint, the mystic pedagogue Emanuel romps in a "delusional paradise," but it is "truly paradisiacal" (102). Similarly, Christ's announcement in Jean Paul's most famous text, long before Nietzsche, that there is no God and that we are all orphans, is intended to shock the reader into realizing how meaningless affect-less bourgeois religion is compared to a real questioning of the meaning of existence. Fleming comments that when Madame de Staël attempted to make Jean Paul more modern in her reprinting of his text by omitting the and-then-I-woke-up ending, she actually lost his point: faith is closer to questioning than to complacency. Jean Paul touches on the psychological dimensions of humor in Siebenkäs, an exploration of the miseries of marriage. Life is innately too "small" for "the ideal of man and wife working harmoniously together" to be anything but comic. Jean Paul wittily conjoins wit and marriage, famously remarking that wit is "the disguised priest who marries every couple." Or as Fleming says, "In wit, as in marriage, every couple is potentially an odd-couple" (126). The largest part of this chapter is a fascinating, pedagogically useful history of "wit," and how Jean Paul fits into that history. Also of interest for students of the period is Fleming's thoughtful comparison of Jean Paul's sense of the "infinite" with that of the Jena Romantics. Romanticisms—German, English, and American—could profitably be discussed using the categories developed by Fleming. And it should be said that Fleming's discussion of Jean Paul's Preschool of Aesthetics richly answers Wulf Koepke's plea for a discussion of this work as a seminal document of literary theory (Studies in German Literature, Linguistics, and Culture 57 [1991]: xxi). A glance at Fleming's subtitles on the Contents page reveals the playful, witty style of this study. "Brain...

Wives' Shift Work Schedules and Husbands' and Wives' Well-Being in Dual-Earner Couples With Children

In a sample of 55 dual-earner families with children aged 8 to 14 in which the mothers are registered nurses regularly working either day shifts (typically 7:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m.) or evening shifts (typically 3:00 p.m. to 11:00 p.m.), we estimated the within-couple relationship between the wife's work variables (i.e., work shift, work hours, and the interaction between work shift and work hours) and each spouse's work—family conflict, psychological distress, and marital-role quality. Wives' work variables predicted their own work—family conflict and psychological distress and showed a trend to predict their husbands' work—family conflict.

Tender Machos: Masculine Contrasts in the Mexican Baseball League

Tender Machos: Masculine Contrasts in the Mexican Baseball League

Trends in the Labor Force Participation of Married Women

This study seeks to quantify determinants, and costs, of the labor-force participation of married women. We use demographic and earnings data from the Health and Retirement Study. The earnings data constitute an unusually long panel but have the defect of lacking corresponding reports on work hours. By using a highly structured model and concentrating on the participation margin, we nevertheless feel that we can make substantial progress. Our preliminary regression results imply that married women's market work disrupts their household consumption slightly less than one half as much as men's work (relative to complete household retirement). We lay out a course of additional steps that can, we believe, clarify these results even more precisely in the near future.

Doves and Dreams: The Art of Frances Macdonald and J. Herbert McNair, edited by Pamela Robertson

Reviewed by: Doves and Dreams: The Art of Frances Macdonald and J. Herbert McNair John Morrison (bio) Doves and Dreams: The Art of Frances Macdonald and J. Herbert McNair, edited by Pamela Robertson; pp. 191. Aldershot and Burlington: Lund Humphries, 2006, £40.00, $80.00. Doves and Dreams: The Art of Frances Macdonald and J. Herbert McNair is a companion volume to the exhibition of the same name that took place in the Hunterian Gallery, Glasgow, in 2006 and in the Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool, in 2007. Essays by Juliet Kinchin and Joseph Sharples, Pamela Robertson, Janice Helland, and Annette Carruthers occupy nearly one-third of the book, while the remainder consists of a catalogue raisonné of the work of Macdonald and McNair. The four essays deal in turn with the cultural milieux of Glasgow and Liverpool where the husband and wife designers McNair and Macdonald spent their active working lives, the lives and work produced by the two during their time in the two cities, their whole room designs, and finally their three-dimensional designs. Robertson's preface explains that the lives and work of Macdonald and McNair have not been thoroughly or consistently examined or documented and, further, that the present volume draws on new research and recently discovered works to present the first comprehensive survey of the achievements of the two artists. The book deals centrally with the decade from 1895, the most active period of their professional lives. It discusses only briefly the well-worn tale of their involvement with Frances's sister Margaret Macdonald and Margaret's husband Charles Rennie Mackintosh in the informal grouping known as "The Four," and offers a short summary of Macdonald's and McNair's lives after 1909. Macdonald died in 1921 leaving little extant work from the last decade of her life. McNair, who may have destroyed much of his wife's later work, died in 1955 having ceased active work as a designer more than thirty years earlier. The essay by Kinchin and Sharples compares Liverpool and Glasgow, the two sites of the artists' careers, mainly to the detriment of the former city. While both cities are portrayed as commercially successful and confident metropolises, Glasgow is identified as a more diverse, cosmopolitan city with a vibrant visual culture and an evolving aesthetic language of its own, while Liverpool, with occasional exceptions, is revealed as a provincial centre with a narrower economic and cultural base. Interestingly, Glasgow's relative sophistication is linked explicitly to the city's status within the nation of Scotland, and Liverpool's to its less-exalted station within England. This analysis of the visual culture of British cities as simultaneously congruent because of their Britishness, but distinct by virtue of their older identities as English or Scottish, is worthy of further exploration. Robertson's piece chronologically follows the careers of Macdonald and McNair, beginning with their initial critical success in Glasgow and McNair's apppointment as instructor in design in the newly established School of Architecture and Applied Art at University College Liverpool in 1898. The pair's activities in the ultimately less-receptive environment of Liverpool, their marriage in 1899, parenthood in 1900, interior decoration of their Studio-featured flat in 1901, and participation in international exhibitions across Europe, are documented through to the artists' impecunious return to Glasgow in 1908, following the disadvantageous restructuring of McNair's teaching post and the collapse of his family fortune. Helland's treatise is at a tangent to the others. Rather than chronologically or contextually grounded, she explores theoretically the "conflation of art and life" in Arts and Crafts design and McDonald and McNair's construction of their "domestic [End Page 720] interiors as mirrors of their art practices" (56–57). The parallel theme of the undermining of the tradition of gender-specific spaces makes this the most speculative, challenging, and ultimately most interesting of the four essays. There is a sense here that, faced with a paucity of evidence, every last ounce of meaning is wrung out of the available material, both documentary and visual. Carruthers's contribution, in contrast, is the most descriptive. It documents the artists' three-dimensional design work and concentrates on establishing...

Gertrude Weil and Her Times

North Carolina has been home to many remarkable women, and in this galaxy the name Gertrude Weil shines bright. Born in 1879 into a family that was virtually synonymous with the history of Goldsboro, North Carolina, forty years later she was one of the best-known women in the state. The first North Carolina graduate of Smith College, she returned to Goldsboro after graduation. Step by step, using voluntary associations such as the woman's club, the suffrage movement, the League of Women Voters, and the Council of Jewish Women, she gradually became an effective political leader. Intelligent, modest, diplomatic, witty, realistic, effective--all of these overworked adjectives describe her. met Miss Weil, as called her then, in 1963, when she was eighty-four. had come to ask her about the political activities of North Carolina women in the first half of the twentieth century. My chief memory of that meeting is of her lively interest in the research was doing and her trenchant answers to my questions. She did not pussyfoot: one of the early leaders whom she and both admired was married, she told me, to a very ordinary man who did not much support his wife's work in the public interest but liked to go the beach and watch the girls. Nor did she exaggerate the work she and a small handful of her contemporaries had accomplished. was full of the excitement of discovering such women, but she urged me to be realistic. Women, she said, were not always selfless in their political activities; most North Carolina women had not been the least bit feminist and certainly most were not radical. Then she went on to give thumbnail sketches of those who were feminist and radical (her friends) and to suggest some of their accomplishments. She only talked about herself in response to a direct question. It was, all in all, a wonderful day. We met in the house her father had built, in which she had been born. Generations of books lined the walls: clearly, theirs was a reading family. Papers spilled out of drawers and shelves. Nothing of any value, she assured me. (Whether from guile or modesty, who can say?) These papers now fill one hundred boxes in the North Carolina Office of Archives and History and challenge the historian in a dozen ways. That day began a friendship that lasted until her death in 1971. As read the early records of the North Carolina League of Women Voters and talked about her with other survivors of the early days of North Carolina feminism, my admiration grew. Her remarkable spirit emerged in every encounter on paper or in person. Once in the late sixties she came to Chapel Hill to consult my husband about the state of the world--she thought it was pretty bad but she wanted to know what the experts were saying. They discussed depressing international problems at length. Gertrude was irrepressible. I grow more radical every year, she told him. Who knows? may live long enough to become a communist! A year before her death, she was still laughing, this time about how hard it was to read a book when she couldn't remember the page she had just read. In all my life, have seen few people take the infirmities of age with such grace. Gertrude Weil's life exemplifies a number of the social changes and political developments of her time. She lived through half our history as a nation under the Constitution. It was, moreover, the half in which middle-class women, for the first time in numbers enough to be visible, moved outside the domestic sphere and began directly to shape public life. She was one of those women, and a close look at her life suggests a good bit about who they were, about the forces that came to bear upon them, and how they responded. For such a woman to exist there must be at least two contexts. One is personal: family, personality, genetic constitution, intelligence. The other is social: what is going on in the larger society, including opportunities for education, the existence of institutions hospitable to activists, the potential for support from other women. …

Stress and its correlates among married working women in jeju island : a pilot study in terms of depressive symptoms

Objectives: To determine whether subjective memory complaint(SMC) in depression is related to the impairment of daily activities and to certain areas of cognitive function in patients with depression.Methods: 20 depressive patients without SMC, 16 depressive patients with SMC who visited cheju national university hospital from June, 2007 to January 2008 were assigned for the study. CERAD-K, MMSE-KC, BDS-ADL, K-GDS were used to check cognitive function and activity of daily living, and depression, the two groups were compared using x&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; test and independent t-test.Result: BDS-ADL(Blessed Dementia Scale-Activities of Daily Living) [0.33(SD = 0.34) vs 0.75(SD = 0.71)] scores were statistically different between the two groups. SBT-K (Korean version of Short Blessed Test), Verbal fluency, Word list memory, Word list recall, CDR (Clinical Dementia Rating Scale), Naming, MMSE-KC, Constructional praxis,Word list recognition, Constructional praxis recall, Subjective Memory Complaint (SMC) were not different between the two groups. BDS-ADL was also found to a correlate of subjective memory complaint among depressed elderly patients after multiple logistic regression analyses.Conclusions: These result suggest that depressive patient with SMC is more likely to be in difficulty in activities in daily living.

Factors That Make Work Rewarding for Married Working Women with Children

The purpose of this research is to examine the factors that influence whether married working women with children feel their work is worth doing. A questionnaire was mailed to women in 5 unions of the Japanese Trade Union Confederations in 2005. About 90 percent of respondents were regular full-time workers.Based on a three step regression analysis, the major findings are asfollows:(1) Positive factors are related to the level of consciousness at the workplace, that is they perceive the possibility of promotion to a higher position, they have good relations with colleagues and supervisors, and they work in a family-friendly environment.(2) A negative factor was that they felt discrimination from men with the same career path.(3) Among working women with children under three years of age, time inflexibility such as overtime work with their coworkers is a greater negative influence compared with mothers having older children.

Sympathy for Pontius Pilate. Hemicrania in M. A. Bulgakov's The Master and Margarita

The aim of this study was to explore the description of the migraine attack of Pontius Pilate (a character in the novel The Master and Margarita by M. A. Bulgakov). Some of its features are analysed in light of current migraine literature. It is hypothesized that, at least in part, this description is based on the personal experience of the novel's author. We studied and analysed the text of the novel, other works by Bulgakov, his biography, including his medical training and practice, and the recently published diaries of Bulgakov and his wife E. S. Bulgakova. The novel contains a comprehensive description of a migraine attack. It includes a prodrome/aura of osmophobia. Olfactory perception during or shortly before the migraine attack is altered to the point where neutral or even pleasant odours become unbearable. Bulgakov's extensive history of migraines is seen in his diary, the diary of his wife, letters and other literary works. This is one of the most detailed and extensive depictions of a migraine attack in literature, with osmophobia described with great emphasis. It is likely that Pilate's migraine is described based on the personal history of the novel's author.

Changes in women's hours of market work: The role of returns to experience

Over the past several decades, married women's hours of market work increased significantly in the US. I argue that changes in behavior by married women with children account for much of this change. In particular, the pattern of married women's work hours has changed substantially over the life cycle. In the past, married women in childbearing age tended to specialize in childrearing and home production activities at the expense of engaging in market work. Now they do not curb the hours they work in the market. What factors contribute to this change in behavior? In this paper, I focus on relative changes in returns to experience as an explanation. I use PSID data for the 1970s and the 1990s to estimate the extent to which relative returns to experience have changed. I then use a life-cycle model with human capital accumulation and home production to quantitatively assess the consequences of this increase for married women's hours of work over the life cycle. The estimates of the human capital production function show that women's marginal returns to experience increased by 25% across decades, whereas men's increased by only 6%. I show that this relative change accounts for 96% of the observed variation in married women's hours of work. Moreover, according to the model, the increase in returns to experience accounts for roughly half of the increase in the female/male wage ratio that is found in the data. I also show that a decline in the gender wage gap, holding returns to experience constant, accounts for only 18% of the total increase in hours of work. As a consequence, it cannot explain the change in the shape of women's life-cycle profiles. Although the focus of the analysis is the labor supply behavior of women, the model also allows predictions about the behavior of men and single women. These predictions are consistent with the data.

Father Responsivity: Couple Processes and the Coconstruction of Fatherhood

Forty in-depth interviews of heterosexual parents of children 5 five years of age and younger are analyzed using a qualitative grounded theory approach to understand how couples coproduce fatherhood within their day-to-day relationships and in social, cultural, and economic contexts. The analysis identifies the construct "responsivity" as a central process through which, to varying degrees, fathers are aware of the needs of their wives and children and able to take an active part in meeting them. Three groups of fathers are examined according to their level of responsivity: low, moderate, and high. Factors influencing degree of father responsivity include gender constructions, power and the wife's influence, attunement, work schedules, and emotional tradeoffs. Implications for practice are suggested.

Development of a Questionnaire to Measure Family Stress among Married Working Women

Even though a number of studies have suggested that appropriate measuring instruments of family stress for working women have to be developed, the validity and reliability of the instruments used have not been consistently examined. The purpose of the present study was to develop a sensitive instrument to measure family stress for married working women, and to test the validity and reliability of the instrument. The items generated for this instrument were drawn from a comprehensive literature review. Twenty four items were developed through evaluation by 10 experts and twenty one items were finally confirmed through item analysis. Psychometric testing was preformed and confirmed with a convenient sample of 240 women employed in the industrial sector. Four factors evolved by factor analysis, which explained 50.5% of the total variance. The first factor 'Cooperation' explained 28.1%, 2nd factor 'Satisfaction with relationships' 10.6%, 3rd factor 'Democratic and comfortable environment' 6.3%, and 4th factor 'Disturbance of own living' 5.5%. Cronbach's coefficient of this instrument was 0.86. The study supports the validity and reliability of the instrument.

The Effects of Full-Time Domestic Workers on Married Women's Economic Activity Status in Hong Kong, 1981–2001

In this article, logistic regression models were used to assess the effects of live-in domestic workers on married women's economic activity status. One percent random samples of the Hong Kong census and by-census data from the period 1981–2001 were used, and domestic workers are conceptualized as substitutes for wives’ domestic labour. Hypotheses are tested, which alternatively conceptualize domestic workers as substitutions for wives’ domestic labour, and as having symbolic functions for the family household and for the wives’ gender role. The presence of live-in domestic workers significantly increases the odds of mothers (but not non-mothers) being economically active. The effects of domestic workers on the odds of whether married women work vary over time and differ according to household income and wives’ educational attainment. Findings lend support to the symbolic functions of domestic workers and to the role of lifestyle preferences in women's employment. Further research using time budget, qualitative and attitudinal data are required in order to further understand the functions of domestic workers in the social reproduction of family and gender roles.

The Relationship of Work Stress and Family Stress to the Self‐Rated Health of Women Employed in the Industrial Sector in Korea

To identify the relationship of work stress and family stress to the health of women in Korea. Cross-sectional study. Three hundred and thirty-one married women working in 14 manufacturing companies in Korea. Subjects responded to a questionnaire that included items on work stress, family stress, social support, and general characteristics. Perceived health status (PHS) was assessed with the Short Form-36. There was a significant positive relationship between social support and PHS, but significant negative relationships were found between PHS and work stress as well as family stress. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis explained the health status of married working women by four categories: personal, work related, family related, and social support, and accounted for 45.4% of the variance. When family-related factors were added to the model, the power of explanation was increased by 17.9% compared with the explained variance. Family stress was a major variable not only for explaining the variance but also for correlating with health status. Both work stress and family stress should be considered together when addressing the health of working women in the industrial sector in Korea.

A Verification of Work Participation, Fertility and Wage Nexus among Married Women in Urban Pondicherry

The study examines the nexus among married women's work participation, fertility and wage in urban Pondicherry. The primary data for the purpose were collected during March/April 1997 from a random sample of 200 women with living husbands, of whom 150 were working and 50 non-working. Regressions were estimated using Probit, Tobit and Logit methods to identify the factors influencing married women's work participation decisions. Stepwise procedure was adopted in order to eliminate the problems of multicollinearity, if any in the estimation of the regression models. Besides, 2SLS equations were also estimated to examine the inter-relationship among work participation fertility and wages. The analysis of married women's work participation using Probit, Tobit and Logit regressions yielded almost similar results. Income variables, other than own wages, had a significant negative substitution effect on their work participation, implying that better economic conditions of the family discouraged married women from taking up paid employment. Instead they would prefer concentrating on their domestic responsibilities. The effect of own age during the survey was positive and significant while that of a further increase in age was negative and significant. The latter implied that a further increase in age deterred the women from joining labour market. Higher fertility also significantly affected their labour participation decision. This holds an implication for a nexus among work participation. fertility and wage. However, the 2SLS estimates failed to illuminate any distinct inter- relationship among the selected variables. This implies that conservatism over-rules these factors in urban Pondicherry. Regressions were estimated using Probit, Tobit and Logit methods to identify the factors influencing married women's work participation decisions. Step-wise procedure was adopted in order to eliminate the problems of multicollinearity. If any in the estimation were also estimated to examine the inter-relationship among work participation, fertility and wages.

A change in the earnings penalty for British men with working wives: Evidence from the 1980's and 1990's

Using pooled cross-sectional data from 1984–1989 and 1990–1995, two-stage (Tobit/OLS) regressions show that the penalty on male earnings for working wives, found in earlier research for British males in the early 1980's in managerial and other occupations, is not present in the second half of the 1980's and is largely reversed by the 1990's; in most occupational clusters, managers most notably, it is replaced by an earnings premium. The results are consistent with a view that increases in married women's labor force participation in Britain, coupled with positive assortative mating, have overwhelmed any forces tending to reduce male salaries when their wives work.