Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Research Articles

Anxiety and Repression in Attention and Retention

High- and low-anxious college students (as determined by scores on the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale; A. W. Bendig, 1956) and repressors (low anxiety and high scores on the Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale; D. P. Crowne & D. Marlowe, 1964) were compared on 3 cognitive tasks. High-anxious participants more often spelled the negative emotional meaning of ambiguous homophones (e.g., pane/pain) and forgot more of their free associations to emotional cue words than did the low-anxious participants. The repressors also detected the emotional meaning of the homophones but unlike the anxious, the repressors did recall their associations to the emotional words. In a working memory task using nonemotional items, the moderately anxious participants recalled fewer words than did the low- and high-anxious participants. The results confirm that both trait anxiety and repression affect information processing at a variety of stages but not in the same way. Repressors were sensitive to, and retentive of, negative emotional stimuli.

The Impact of Ethnicity and Response Bias on the Self‐Report of Negative Affect1

Psychosocial self‐report measures are increasingly used in primary health care settings. This experiment examined the impact of response bias on self‐report of psychosocial information in 74 Blacks and 52 Whites. Participants completed the Center for Epidemiological Studies‐Depression (CES‐D), Cook‐Medley Hostility/Stress (CM), Buss‐Durkee Hostility (BD), and Marlowe‐Crowne Social Desirability (MCSDS) scales. Blacks reported greater negative affect than Whites on 2 of 15 scores, and their MCSDS scores were 30% higher. After using MCSDS scores as a covariate, Blacks showed significantly greater negative affect on 10 of 15 scores. Socioeconomic status did not explain the results. Response bias may affect self‐report of negative affect more in Blacks than Whites. Self‐report instruments may underestimate mood symptoms experienced by Blacks

Social Desirability in Personality Testing of Military Officers

The tendency among Swedish military officers to answer in a socially desirable way when taking some personality tests was investigated. Participants were 216 Army, Navy, and Air Force captains. The test used for measuring social desirability was the Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale (M-C SDS; Crowne & Marlowe, 1960) and a subset of those test items. Data revealed a strong tendency among the officers to answer in a socially desirable manner compared to earlier data from testing with the M-C SDS and compared to data from a sample of Swedish students of economics. M-C SDS correlated significantly with all 3 of the personality tests used. The comparably strong tendency to answer in a socially desirable way could be due to in part a need for many individuals to “look good” and in part due to difficulties of applying a 5-step Likert scale to the items of the M-C SDS.

Ambulatory blood pressure in women: Family history of hypertension and personality

The presence of certain personality traits in individuals with a strong family history of hypertension was expected to increase ambulatory blood pressure (BP) in healthy working women. Ambulatory BP was recorded on two work and two off work days during waking and sleeping hours in healthy nurses, 24-50 years of age, with varying parental history: Two hypertensive parents (n = 14); one hypertensive parent (n = 77); two normotensive parents (n = 112). BP during wake and sleep was potentiated in subjects with two hypertensive parents. Assessments were made of hostility (Cook-Medley Hostility Scale), defensiveness (Marlowe Crowne Social Desirability Scale), anxiety (Spielberger Trait Anxiety Inventory) and anger-out (Spielberger Anger Expression Scale). The offspring of two-parent hypertensive families who were hostile, defensive, anxious or did not express anger had elevated ambulatory BP, which was highest during work days. Preventive measures are particularly important for individuals with the combination of certain personality traits and a strong family history of hypertension, who may themselves be at risk for the development of hypertension.

A psychometric evaluation of the General Decision-Making Style Inventory

Abstract The psychometric characteristics of Scott and Bruce’s [Scott, S. G., & Bruce, R. A. (1995). Decision making style: The development and assessment of a new measure. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 55(5), 818–831] General Decision-Making Style (GDMS) measure were examined using a sample of 223 management undergraduates from eight classes. Participants also completed the Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability scale and several classes completed the values scale [Fitzsimmons, G., Macnab, D., & Casserly, C. (1985). Technical manual for the Life Roles Inventory Values Scale and the Salience Inventory. Edmonton, Alberta: PsiCan Consulting] or the Conflict-Management Styles inventory [Flynn, R., & Elloy, D. (1987). Conflict management. National Institute for Dispute Resolution. Washington, DC. Working paper]. Overall, results from the item and scale analyses support the construct validity of this new measure. Further validation work is recommended; for example, applying the GDMS in cross-cultural settings.

Adrenocorticotropin responses to interpersonal stress: effects of overt anger expression style and defensiveness

This study evaluated the influence of overt anger expression style and defensiveness on the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical (HPA) responses to acute psychological stress. These personality traits are thought to modulate the stress cardiovascular response and influence disease risk, however, little is known about their influence on HPA responses. Forty-six young, healthy male volunteers worked on counterbalanced extended public-speaking and mental arithmetic. The sample was dichotomitized into groups low vs. high in anger-out, using Spielberger's Anger-Expression Inventory, and in defensiveness, using the Marlowe–Crown Social Desirability Scale. Serum cortisol and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) concentrations were measured before and after performing each task. Heart rate (HR) and blood pressures (BP) were obtained continuously in 2-min intervals before, during and after the tasks. Public speaking produced greater adrenocortical and cardiovascular stress responses than mental arithmetic, and the greatest increases in ACTH occurred in subjects high in anger-out and defensiveness. These preliminary findings provide evidence that a mismatch between traits of preferred anger expression style and defensive style produces pronounced adrenocorticotropic responses during socially salient stress.

The role of personality in the development and perpetuation of chronic fatigue syndrome

Objectives: Qualitative evidence suggests that personality may have special relevance to the predisposition, precipitation and perpetuation of chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS). This study compares three dimensions of personality — perfectionism, self-esteem, and emotional control in the personality profiles of CFS patients ( N=44) and a control group ( N=44) without a history of CFS, matched for age and gender. Methods: Participants were assessed on the MPS [Frost RO, Marten P, Lahart C, Rosenblate R. The dimensions of perfectionism. Cognit Ther Res 1990;14:449–468.]; the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale [Rosenberg M. Society and the Adolescent Self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ Press, 1965.]; the Courtauld Emotional Scale [Watson M, Greer S. Development of a questionnaire measure of emotional control. J Psychosom Res 1983;27:299–305.] and the Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale [Crowne DP, Marlowe D. A new scale of social desirability independent of psychopathology. J Consult Psychol 1960;24:349–354.]. Results: Analyses revealed that the CFS group reported higher levels than the control group on the Total Perfectionism score and Doubts about Actions and the Concern over Mistakes subscales. Furthermore, the CFS group also reported lower self-esteem than the control group. No difference between the two groups was found on the dimensions of emotional control and social desirability response bias. Conclusion: A developmental model of CFS, which considers the predisposing, precipitating, and perpetuating factors that may account for the course of the disorder irrespective of etiology, is proposed. In the context of the results, recommendations for practice and future research are discussed.

Social desirability and self-reported weight and height.

The present study examines the relationship between the desire to conform to perceived societal norms and the misreporting of weight and height. Self-reported and measured weights and heights for 56 young, healthy non-obese volunteers were assessed and compared to scores on the Marlowe Crowne Social Desirability Scale (MCSDS). Discrepancies between actual and self-reported weights for females were directly related to actual weight (r = 0.66, P<0.0001). The same was not true for males (r = 0.03). Height was significantly overreported, regardless of gender (P<0.004). Most importantly, for females, MCSDS scores were significantly correlated with the discrepancy between actual and self-reported weights after statistically adjusting for differences in actual weight (r = 0.51, P<0.0001). Results suggest that the misreporting of weight among young, non-obese women may be directly influenced by the desire to conform to perceived societal norms.

Socially desirable response sets: The impact of country culture

The present research explores differences in social-desirability response bias across cultures. Results indicate a significant difference in response bias between Western and Eastern subjects that may be attributed to differences in the dominant cultural dimensions of the subject's country of origin. Additional analysis reveals surprising results regarding the measurement-scale properties themselves. The unexpected findings raise concerns about the cross-cultural generalizability of the Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability scale. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Socially desirable response sets: The impact of country culture

The present research explores differences in social-desirability response bias across cultures. Results indicate a significant difference in response bias between Western and Eastern subjects that may be attributed to differences in the dominant cultural dimensions of the subject's country of origin. Additional analysis reveals surprising results regarding the measurement-scale properties themselves. The unexpected findings raise concerns about the cross-cultural generalizability of the Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability scale. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Repressed anger and patterns of cardiovascular, self-report and behavioral responses: Effects of harassment

We hypothesized that anger repressors would show discrepancies between self-reported anger and cardiovascular and behavioral responses only during harassment. Subjects (N=102) were assigned randomly to condition. In the nonharassment condition, subjects told stories about eight Thematic Apperception Test cards without any harassment. In the harassment condition, subjects told four stories without harassment, and then told four more stories with harassment. Words connoting aggressive behavior and angry/hostile affect were coded from story content. Subjects were classified into low anger expressor, anger repressor, high anger expressor, and defensive anger expressor categories based on median splits of the Anger-Out Subscale and Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale. Results showed that harassed anger repressors reported anger comparable to that of low anger expressors but less than high expressors, whereas their heart rate (HR) reactivity was comparable to high expressors, but greater than low anger expressors. Increases in anger words did not distinguish repressors from other groups. Repressed anger may represent a distinct anger management style characterized by a discrepancy between acknowledged anger and cardiovascular reactivity—effects that become fully manifest only during interpersonal provocation.

Defensive hostility and cardiovascular responses to stress in young men

The relationship between hostility, defensiveness and cardiovascular reactivity to stress was evaluated in a laboratory study. A total of 46 men aged 18-45 years with extreme scores on the Cook–Medley Hostility (Ho) and the Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability (MC) scales, were recruited to create four groups: Defensive Hostile (DH: high Ho, high MC), Nondefensive Hostile (NDH: high Ho, low MC), Nonhostile Defensive (NHD: low Ho, high MC) and Nonhostile Nondefensive (NHND: low Ho, low MC). After a resting baseline, three stressors were administered: the cold pressor task, a public speech task and an anger recall task. Both DHs and NDHs displayed elevated baseline systolic blood pressures in comparison to others. DH and NHND men in comparison to NDH men exhibited increased diastolic blood pressure reactivity on the cold pressor task. There were no significant differences in reactivity between groups during the mental stressors. To summarize, the positive association between hostility and resting blood pressure supports previous research on the association between hostility and the development of coronary artery disease. Further, the current laboratory study and other laboratory studies (in contrast to field studies) do not provide strong evidence to suggest that DHs in comparison to others may be at increased risk for developing coronary artery disease.

Repressive/defensive coping, endogenous opioids and health: how a life so perfect can make you sick

Hyperactivity of endogenous opioid systems has been postulated to mediate the associations between defensive/repressive coping styles, enhanced stress responsivity, and reduced immunocompetence. Study 1 examined whether repressive/defensive coping would be associated with greater sensitivity to opioid antagonism. Judgments of the painfulness of ascending series of electrocutaneous stimulation applied to the forearm were determined before and after the administration of naloxone and placebo in 38 men and 42 women. All subjects were healthy with a mean age of 32.9 years. Naloxone (10 mg i.v.) and placebo were administered in double-blind fashion and counterbalanced. Subjects were classified as High- and Low-defensive and repressive copers on the basis of scores on the Marlowe—Crowne Social Desirability Scale and the Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding, respectively. High Self-Deception was associated with naloxone-induced hyperalgesia, whereas no effects of naloxone on pain ratings were observed in low-Self-Deceptive subjects. In Study 2, resting plasma β-endorphin levels were found to be positively correlated with defensiveness in men ( n = 26), but not women ( n = 44). Study 3 examined 82 healthy subjects (mean age = 28.7 years). β-Endorphin/defensiveness correlations were found to be greater following, compared to prior to, electrical nociceptive stimulation in men ( n = 49), but unrelated in women ( n = 33). These findings are consistent with the hypothesized endorphinergic dysregulation associated with repressive/defensive coping styles and are discussed in terms of the immuno-regulatory implications of such a dysregulation.

Repressive and defensive coping styles predict resting plasma endorphin levels in the elderly

Jamner, L.D., Schwartz, G.E., 1986, Psychosom. Med. 48, 211–223, have proposed that repressive and defensive coping are associated with greater central endogenous opioid activity. They reasoned that high-defensive (HD) participants’ attenuated distress, increased pain tolerances, attenuated somatic symptomatology, and accentuated reports of positive emotions are consistent with actions of centrally active opioid peptides. The present study assessed plasma β-endorphin (END) levels, Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale (MCSD), and Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale (TMAS) scores in men ( n=6) and women ( n=20) between the ages of 59 and 79. Contrary to predictions, HD had lower plasma endorphin levels than did low-defensive (LD) participants. Raw MCSD scores correlated negatively with endorphin levels. Findings were significant for women only, which may have been due to the small sample of men. The results are discussed as they related to the hypothesis that defensiveness involves alteration of central opioid systems.

Self and informant ratings of SCID‐II personality disorder items for nonreferred college women: Effects of item and participant characteristics

Examined the relationship between self- and informant-ratings on Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R Personality Disorders (SCID-II) items. Seventy-five female undergraduate student volunteers and their roommates also completed the Brief Symptom Inventory, Rubin's Liking Scale, and the Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale. Self-rating scores on personality disorder items were significantly higher than informant-ratings on five personality disorder scales. Participants and informants endorsed more personality disorder items rated higher on social desirability. No relationship was found between subjectivity of personality disorder scales and differences between self- and informant-ratings. Participants with higher needs for positive self-presentation rated themselves lower on nine personality disorder scales. A higher level of liking for roommates was associated with lower informant ratings for six personality disorder scales. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Clin Psychol 53: 523–533, 1997.

Neuroticism and defensive responding

This study explored the relationship between responses to the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) Neuroticism Scale (N) and defensive responding. The EPI and the Marlowe Crowne Social Desirability Scale (SD) were administered to 157 college students. Repressors (REP), characterized by defensive responding, were defined by median splits on N and SD as low N and high SD. As predicted, REPs scored lower on N than truly low anxious subjects, low N and low SD. Also consistent with expectation, there were significantly fewer defensive high anxious subjects, high N and high SD. The first of these findings replicates Plante and Schwartz (1990). The second is consistent with Weinberger, Schwartz and Davidson (1979). A low correlation was found between extraversion and SD while the correlation between the EPI Lie Scale and SD was high enough to suggest some similarity ( r = 0.33, P < 0.001) but low enough to indicate that it would not be a suitable replacement for SD in detecting defensive responding on N.

Self- and spouse ratings of anger and hostility as predictors of coronary heart disease.

Self- and spouse ratings of anger and hostility were examined as predictors of coronary heart disease (CHD) in 185 cardiac patients. Patients completed the Multidimensional Anger Inventory (MAI) and the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability (MCSD) Scale; the MAI (rewritten to 3rd person) was completed by patients' spouses or by a peer. Thallium scans were used to measure CHD status. Results showed that patient-rated MAI scores were inversely correlated with MCSD. There were no gender differences for patient-rated MAI scores, but spouse ratings showed gender effects for Anger-Arousal and Hostile Outlook: Women rated their husband higher than men rated their wife. Patients with positive thallium scans were no different from those without CHD on patient-rated MAI scores; however, spouse ratings indicated that those with CHD had higher Hostile Outlook and Anger-In scores. After accounting for the effects of traditional CHD risk factors, only spouse-rated hostility contributed significant incremental variance to the prediction of CHD status.

The relationship between the Marlowe-Crowne form C and the validity scales of the MMPI

The study examined the construct-related validity of a 13-item short form of the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale advanced by Reynolds (1982), using the validity scales of the MMPI. With a sample of 481 Basic Military Trainees, the short form of the Marlowe-Crowne replicated the correlations between the standard Marlowe-Crowne and the MMPI validity scales initially reported by Crowne and Marlowe (1960). The results further support the short form of the Marlow-Crowne Social Desirability Scale as an economical measure of social desirability.

Alcohol and correspondence between self-report and physiological measures of anxiety

The present study was designed to determine the main effects of alcohol intoxication on self-report and physiological measures of anxiety. Second, we aimed to assess the role of the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability (MCSD) scale in predicting the relationship between self-report and physiological indices of anxiety irrespective of drink content. A final purpose of the study was to determine whether the MCSD could account for discrepancies in the effects of alcohol on the two anxiety response systems. Subjects were male social drinkers who received an 0.70 g kg dose of alcohol or placebo. Results indicated that irrespective of drink content, subjects with high MCSD scores reported lower levels of anxiety than did subjects with low MCSD scores. This relationship was not evident for heart rate. These results for measures of anxiety were not influenced by drink content.

Repression and the anxiety-defensiveness factor: Psychological correlates and manifestations

The study deals with the nature of repression as currently defined by low anxiety (Taylor's MAS) and high defensiveness (Marlowe-Crowne's Social Desirability Scale), and the psychological reality of the 4-group partition based on anxiety and defensiveness. The subjects, 227 men and women about 40 yr old, were administered questionnaires as part of a health survey. Analyses of variance showed that repressors scored low on Eysenck's neuroticism; low on negative emotions but high on positive emotions (MAACL, MACL); low on negative daydreams and low attentional control (Imaginal Processes Inventory); low on references to others and negative self descriptions but high on positive self descriptions and on experimental and actional contents (“Who-Am-I?”); low on somatic complaints (e.g. SUNYA checklist) but high on the motivation for physical health (Cognitive Orientation of Health, Kreitler & Kreitler). There were no differences in positive daydreaming, alexithymia, locus of control, authoritarianism, and somatization. Analyses of variance with anxiety and defensiveness as separate factors showed the two factors were involved in about half of the cases, but only one factor, mostly anxiety, in the other half. Major conclusions are that repression is a coping mechanism directed selectively against negative or unpleasant aspects and that the four groups have a broad-based psychological reality.