Marker Of Microglial Activation Research Articles

Diapocynin neuroprotective effects in 3-nitropropionic acid Huntington’s disease model in rats: emphasis on Sirt1/Nrf2 signaling pathway

Background and AimHuntington's disease (HD) is a rare inherited disease portrayed with marked cognitive and motor decline owing to extensive neurodegeneration. NADPH oxidase is considered as an important contributor to the oxidative injury in several neurodegenerative disorders including HD. Thus, the present study explored the possible neuroprotective effects of diapocynin, a specific NADPH oxidase inhibitor, against 3-nitropropionic acid (3-NP) model of HD in rats.MethodsAnimals received diapocynin (10 mg/kg/day, p.o), 30 min before 3-NP (10 mg/kg/day, i.p) over a period of 14 days.ResultsDiapocynin administration attenuated 3-NP-induced oxidative stress with significant increase in reduced glutathione, glutathione-S-transferase, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor striatal contents contrary to NADPH oxidase (NOX2; gp91phox subunit) diminished expression. Moreover, diapocynin mitigated 3-NP-associated neuroinflammationand glial activation with prominent downregulation of nuclear factor-Кβ p65 and marked decrement of inducible nitric oxide synthase content in addition to decreased immunoreactivity of ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1 and glial fibrillary acidic protein; markers of microglial and astroglial activation, respectively. Treatment with diapocynin hindered 3-NP-induced apoptosis with prominent decrease in tumor suppressor protein and Bcl-2-associated X protein contents whereas the anti-apoptotic marker; B-cell lymphoma-2 content was noticeably increased. Diapocynin neuroprotective effects could be attributed to silent information regulator 1 upregulation which curbed 3-NP-associated hazards resulting in improved motor functions witnessed during open field, rotarod, and grip strength tests as well as attenuated 3-NP-associated histopathological derangements.ConclusionThe present findings indicated that diapocynin could serve as an auspicious nominee for HD management.Graphical abstract

0281 Impact of chronic sleep disruption on glymphatic function, cognitive performance, and neuropathology in the 5xFAD mouse model

Abstract Introduction Recent studies suggest a bidirectional relationship between sleep disruption and Alzheimer’s disease, with mid-life sleep disruption associated with the development of Alzheimer’s-related amyloid and tau pathology. Yet, the mechanistic link between sleep disruption, particularly over chronic time scales, and the development of Alzheimer’s pathology remains unclear. Methods In this study, we evaluated the impact chronic sleep disruption has on the onset of cognitive impairment and neuropathologic disease progression using the 5xFAD amyloidosis mouse model. Chronic sleep disruption in male and female C57BL/6 and 5xFAD+ mice was performed in Lafayette sleep fragmentation cages from 10-18 weeks of age. Cognitive impairment was evaluated through behavioral tasks indicative of spatial memory, short-term memory, locomotion, anxiety, and activities of daily living. Upon completion of behavioral experiments, glymphatic function was assessed by measuring the influx of fluorescent cerebrospinal fluid tracers into brain tissue. Aquaporin-4 localization, amyloid plaque deposition, and markers of astroglial and microglial activation were assessed by immunofluorescence. Results We observed that chronic sleep disruption impaired cognitive performance and increased neuropathological outcomes in 5xFAD+ and littermate controls. The impact on glymphatic function was assessed in parallel and correlated with neuropathological and behavioral outcomes. Conclusion These findings highlight the critical association between dysfunctional sleep and the development of cognitive impairment and neuropathologic disease progression. They indicate that there is a potential interaction between inflammatory expression after chronic sleep disruption and neuropathologic disease progression. Support (If Any)

Chronic Pain State Mediates Development of Hippocampal and Renal Inflammatory Responses

Chronic pain and related stress have been previously linked to the development of mood disorders and dysfunction of peripheral organs such as the kidney. While the underlying neurophysiological mechanisms remain elusive, here we examined the effects of chronic pain on activation of immune‐inflammatory responses in the brain and kidney. Male rats were exposed to chronic inflammatory pain for up to 42 days [multiple injections of Freund’s adjuvant (CFA) into the hind paw], which produced a state of chronic allodynia and enhanced behavioral emotionality. Biochemical analysis of the hippocampus, a limbic region that regulates mood and stress responses, showed that CFA evoked increases in expression of ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1 (IBA1) and NLRP3 inflammasome proteins, known markers of microglial activation and neuroinflammatory responses, respectively. An increase in the neutrophil gelatinase‐associated lipocalin (NGAL) and IL‐18 are recognized as early diagnostic injury and inflammatory biomarkers of kidney disease. NLRP3 is implicated in the pathogenesis of kidney diseases by regulation of renal inflammation. Analysis via immunocytochemistry demonstrated that CFA also evoked significant increases in NGAL, IL‐18 and NLRP3 protein levels in the renal glomeruli and tubules, suggesting that chronic pain and related stress effects induce renal inflammation and possibly a reduction in kidney function. Together, these findings provide new evidence to support a mechanistical understanding of a bidirectional relationship between chronic pain‐related stress and kidney dysfunction. Further understanding of this relationship could contribute to the identification of novel treatment strategies to diminish both mental health and renal physiological consequences of chronic pain.

Translocator protein (18kDa) TSPO: a new diagnostic or therapeutic target for stress-related disorders?

Efficient treatment of stress-related disorders, such as depression, is still a major challenge. The onset of antidepressant drug action is generally quite slow, while the anxiolytic action of benzodiazepines is considerably faster. However, their long-term use is impaired by tolerance development, abuse liability and cognitive impairment. Benzodiazepines act as positive allosteric modulators of ɣ-aminobutyric acid type A (GABAA) receptors. 3α-reduced neurosteroids such as allopregnanolone also are positive allosteric GABAA receptor modulators, however, through a site different from that targeted by benzodiazepines. Recently, the administration of neurosteroids such as brexanolone or zuranolone has been shown to rapidly ameliorate symptoms in post-partum depression or major depressive disorder. An attractive alternative to the administration of exogenous neurosteroids is promoting endogenous neurosteroidogenesis via the translocator protein 18k Da (TSPO). TSPO is a transmembrane protein located primarily in mitochondria, which mediates numerous biological functions, e.g., steroidogenesis and mitochondrial bioenergetics. TSPO ligands have been used in positron emission tomography (PET) studies as putative markers of microglia activation and neuroinflammation in stress-related disorders. Moreover, TSPO ligands have been shown to modulate neuroplasticity and to elicit antidepressant and anxiolytic therapeutic effects in animals and humans. As such, TSPO may open new avenues for understanding the pathophysiology of stress-related disorders and for the development of novel treatment options.

Serum Iba-1, GLUT5, and TSPO in Patients With Diabetic Retinopathy: New Biomarkers for Early Retinal Neurovascular Alterations? A Pilot Study.

PurposeThis study explored the possibility of highlighting early retinal neurovascular alterations of diabetic retinopathy (DR) by monitoring in DR patients the serum levels of microglial biomarkers ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1 (Iba-1), glucose transporter 5 (GLUT5), and translocator protein (TSPO), along with serum changes of the endothelial dysfunction marker arginase-1.MethodsSerum markers were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in 50 patients: 12 non-diabetic subjects, 14 diabetic patients without DR, 13 patients with non-proliferative DR (NPDR), and 11 patients with proliferative DR (PDR). The results were correlated with hyperreflective retinal spots (HRS), observed with optical coherence tomography (OCT).ResultsAlthough HRS were absent in diabetic patients without DR, NPDR patients showed an average of 4 ± 1 HRS, whereas the highest presence was detected in PDR patients, with 8 ± 1 HRS (P < 0.01 vs. NPDR). HRS were positively correlated (P < 0.01) with serum levels of arginase-1 (r = 0.91), Iba-1 (r = 0.96), GLUT5 (r = 0.94), and TSPO (r = 0.88). Moreover, serum proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines showed a positive correlation (P < 0.01) with HRS number and the serum markers analyzed.ConclusionsSerum markers of microglial activation positively correlate with retinal HRS in NPDR and PDR patients.Translational RelevanceThese data corroborate the possibility of highlighting early retinal neurovascular changes due to diabetes by monitoring circulating microglial markers.

Helicobacter pylori Urease: Potential Contributions to Alzheimer's Disease.

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) causes dementia and memory loss in the elderly. Deposits of beta-amyloid peptide and hyperphosphorylated tau protein are present in a brain with AD. A filtrate of Helicobacter pylori’s culture was previously found to induce hyperphosphorylation of tau in vivo, suggesting that bacterial exotoxins could permeate the blood–brain barrier and directly induce tau’s phosphorylation. H. pylori, which infects ~60% of the world population and causes gastritis and gastric cancer, produces a pro-inflammatory urease (HPU). Here, the neurotoxic potential of HPU was investigated in cultured cells and in rats. SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells exposed to HPU (50–300 nM) produced reactive oxygen species (ROS) and had an increased [Ca2+]i. HPU-treated BV-2 microglial cells produced ROS, cytokines IL-1β and TNF-α, and showed reduced viability. Rats received daily i.p., HPU (5 µg) for 7 days. Hyperphosphorylation of tau at Ser199, Thr205 and Ser396 sites, with no alterations in total tau or GSK-3β levels, and overexpression of Iba1, a marker of microglial activation, were seen in hippocampal homogenates. HPU was not detected in the brain homogenates. Behavioral tests were performed to assess cognitive impairments. Our findings support previous data suggesting an association between infection by H. pylori and tauopathies such as AD, possibly mediated by its urease.

Animal Model of Neonatal Immune Challenge by Lipopolysaccharide: A Study of Sex Influence in Behavioral and Immune/Neurotrophic Alterations in Juvenile Mice

Introduction: The prenatal/perinatal exposure to infections may trigger neurodevelopmental alterations that lead to neuropsychiatric disorders such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Previous evidence points to long-term behavioral consequences, such as autistic-like behaviors in rodents induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) pre- and postnatal (PN) exposure during critical neurodevelopmental periods. Additionally, sex influences the prevalence and symptoms of ASD. Despite this, the mechanisms underlying this influence are poorly understood. We aim to study sex influences in behavioral and neurotrophic/inflammatory alterations triggered by LPS neonatal exposure in juvenile mice at an approximate age of ASD diagnosis in humans. Methods: Swiss male and female mice on PN days 5 and 7 received a single daily injection of 500 μg/kg LPS from Escherichia coli or sterile saline (control group). We conducted behavioral determinations of locomotor activity, repetitive behavior, anxiety-like behavior, social interaction, and working memory in animals on PN25 (equivalent to 3–5 years old of the human). To determine BDNF levels in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus, we used animals on PN8 (equivalent to a human term infant) and PN25. In addition, we evaluated iba-1 (microglia marker), TNFα, and parvalbumin expression on PN25. Results: Male juvenile mice presented repetitive behavior, anxiety, and working memory deficits. Females showed social impairment and working memory deficits. In the neurochemical analysis, we detected lower BDNF levels in brain areas of female mice that were more evident in juvenile mice. Only LPS-challenged females presented a marked hippocampal expression of the microglial activation marker, iba-1, and increased TNFα levels, accompanied by a lower parvalbumin expression. Discussion/Conclusion: Male and female mice presented distinct behavioral alterations. However, LPS-challenged juvenile females showed the most prominent neurobiological alterations related to autism, such as increased microglial activation and parvalbumin impairment. Since these sex-sensitive alterations seem to be age-dependent, a better understanding of changes induced by the exposure to specific risk factors throughout life represents essential targets for developing strategies for autism prevention and precision therapy.

Microglia Activation in the Midbrain of the Human Neonate: The Effect of Perinatal Hypoxic-Ischemic Injury.

Perinatal hypoxia-ischemia (PHI) is a major risk factor for the development of neuropsychiatric deficits later in life. We previously reported that after prolonged PHI, the dopaminergic neurons of the human neonate showed a dramatic reduction of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) in the substantia nigra, without important signs of neuronal degeneration despite the significant reduction in their cell size. Since microglia activation could precede neuronal death, we now investigated 2 microglia activation markers, ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1 (Iba1), and the phagocytosis marker Cd68. The highest Iba1 immunoreactivity was found in neonates with neuropathological lesions of severe/abrupt PHI, while the lowest in subjects with moderate/prolonged or older PHI. Subjects with very severe/prolonged or chronic PHI showed an increased Iba1 expression and very activated microglial morphology. Heavy attachment of microglia on TH neurons and remarkable expression of Cd68 were also observed indicating phagocytosis in this group. Females appear to express more Iba1 than males, suggesting a gender difference in microglia maturation and immune reactivity after PHI insult. PHI-induced microglial "priming" during the sensitive for brain development perinatal/neonatal period, in combination with genetic or other epigenetic factors, could predispose the survivors to neuropsychiatric disorders later in life, possibly through a sexually dimorphic way.

Iron Deposition in the Brain After Aneurysmal Subarachnoid Hemorrhage.

After aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH), thrombus forms over the cerebral cortex and releases hemoglobin. When extracellular, hemoglobin is toxic to neurones. High local hemoglobin concentration overwhelms the clearance capacity of macrophages expressing the hemoglobin-haptoglobin scavenger receptor CD163. We hypothesized that iron is deposited in the cortex after SAH and would associate with outcome. Two complementary cross-sectional studies were conducted. Postmortem brain tissue from 39 SAH (mean postictal interval of 9 days) and 22 control cases was studied with Perls' staining for iron and immunolabeling for CD163, ADAM17 (a disintegrin and metallopeptidase domain 17), CD68, and Iba1 (ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1). In parallel, to study the persistence of cortical iron and its relationship to clinical outcome, we conducted a susceptibility-weighted imaging study of 21 SAH patients 6 months postictus and 10 control individuals. In brain tissue from patients dying soon after SAH, the distribution of iron deposition followed a gradient that diminished with distance from the brain surface. Iron was located intracellularly (mainly in macrophages, and occasionally in microglia, neurones, and glial cells) and extracellularly. Microglial activation and motility markers were increased after SAH, with a similar inward diminishing gradient. In controls, there was a positive correlation between CD163 and iron, which was lost after SAH. In SAH survivors, iron-sensitive imaging 6 months post-SAH confirmed persistence of cortical iron, related to the size and location of the blood clot immediately after SAH, and associated with cognitive outcome. After SAH, iron deposits in the cortical gray matter in a pattern that reflects proximity to the brain surface and thrombus and is related to cognitive outcome. These observations support therapeutic manoeuvres which prevent the permeation of hemoglobin into the cortex after SAH.

PACAP and VIP Mitigate Rotenone-Induced Inflammation in BV-2 Microglial Cells

Rotenone is a commercial pesticide commonly used to model Parkinson’s disease (PD) due to its ability to induce dopaminergic degeneration. Studies have confirmed that rotenone causes microglial activation, which seems to contribute to the toxic effects seen in rodent models. Pituitary adenylate cyclase–activating polypeptide (PACAP) and vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) are two structurally related neuropeptides that have robust neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory properties. However, their ability to regulate microglial activity in response to rotenone is not fully understood. Using rotenone as an inflammatory stimulus, we tested whether PACAP or VIP could mitigate microglial activation in BV2 microglial cells. Rotenone dose-dependently reduced cell viability and the percentage of apoptotic cells. It also increased the release of nitric oxide (NO) in culture media and the expression of microglial activation markers and pro-inflammatory markers, including CD11b, MMP-9 and IL-6, and heightened the endogenous levels of PACAP and its preferring receptor PAC1. Co-treatment with PACAP or VIP prevented rotenone-induced increase of NO, CD11b, MMP-9 and IL-6. These results indicate that both PACAP and VIP are able to prevent the pro-inflammatory effects of rotenone in BV2 cells, supporting the idea that these molecules can have therapeutic value in slowing down PD progression.Graphical

Microglia Loss and Astrocyte Activation Cause Dynamic Changes in Hippocampal [18F]DPA-714 Uptake in Mouse Models of Depression.

Major depression is a serious and chronic mental illness. However, its etiology is poorly understood. Although glial cells have been increasingly implicated in the pathogenesis of depression, the specific role of microglia and astrocytes in stress-induced depression remains unclear. Translocator protein (TSPO) has long been considered a marker of neuroinflammation and microglial activation. However, this protein is also present on astrocytes. Thus, it is necessary to explore the relationships between TSPO, microglia, and astrocytes in the context of depression. In this study, C57BL/6J male mice were subjected to chronic unpredictable stress (CUS) for 5 weeks. Subsequently, sucrose preference and tail suspension tests (TSTs) were performed to assess anhedonia and despair in these mice. [18F]DPA-714 positron emission tomography (PET) was adopted to dynamically assess the changes in glial cells before and 2, 4, or 5 weeks after CUS exposure. The numbers of TSPO+ cells, ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule (Iba)-1+ microglial cells, TSPO+/Iba-1+ cells, glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)+ astrocytes, TSPO+/GFAP+ cells, and TUNEL-stained microglia were quantified using immunofluorescence staining. Real-time PCR was used to evaluate interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-4, and IL-18 expression in the hippocampus. We observed that hippocampal [18F]DPA-714 uptake significantly increased after 2 weeks of CUS. However, the signal significantly decreased after 5 weeks of CUS. CUS significantly reduced the number of Iba-1+, TSPO+, and TSPO+/Iba-1+ cells in the hippocampus, especially in the CA1 and dentate gyrus (DG) subregions. However, this intervention increased the number of GFAP+ astrocytes in the CA2/CA3 subregions of the hippocampus. In addition, microglial apoptosis in the early stage of CUS appeared to be involved in microglia loss. Further, the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β and IL-18) was significantly decreased after CUS. In contrast, the expression of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-4 was significantly increased after 2 weeks of CUS. These results suggested that the CUS-induced dynamic changes in hippocampal [18F]DPA-714 uptake and several cytokines may be due to combined microglial and astrocyte action. These findings provide a theoretical reference for the future clinical applications of TSPO PET.

Hypercholesterolemia aggravates sevoflurane-induced cognitive impairment in aged rats by inducing neurological inflammation and apoptosis.

We aimed to explore the effects of hypercholesterolemia on sevoflurane-induced cognitive impairment in aged rats and the underlying mechanism(s). Aged rats were administrated with high-fat diet, sevoflurane, or both. Thereafter, the plasma levels of total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) were evaluated. The Morris water maze task was performed to evaluate the spatial learning and memory ability of rats. Moreover, Nissl and Evans blue staining were conducted to test nerve damage and detect the blood-brain barrier permeability, respectively. The percentage of apoptotic cells was evaluated by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling assay. The messenger RNA expression of inflammatory factors and protein expression of microglial activation markers and apoptosis-related proteins were tested by real-time polymerase chain reaction, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, or western blot analysis, respectively. High-fat diet induced high levels of TC, TG, and LDL but decreased levels of HDL. However, sevoflurane had no effects on these levels. In contrast, sevoflurane significantly induced the impairment of learning and memory, nerve damage, neuroinflammatory damage, and neuronal apoptosis. Hypercholesterolemia exacerbated the sevoflurane-induced impairment in aged rats. These results suggested that hypercholesterolemia aggravates sevoflurane-induced cognitive impairment in aged rats, possibly by inducing neurological inflammation and apoptosis.

Association of Cholinergic Basal Forebrain Volume and Functional Connectivity with Markers of Inflammatory Response in the Alzheimer's Disease Spectrum.

Inflammation has been described as a key pathogenic event in Alzheimer's disease (AD), downstream of amyloid and tau pathology. Preclinical and clinical data suggest that the cholinergic basal forebrain may moderate inflammatory response to different pathologies. To study the association of cholinergic basal forebrain volume and functional connectivity with measures of neuroinflammation in people from the AD spectrum. We studied 261 cases from the DELCODE cohort, including people with subjective cognitive decline, mild cognitive impairment, AD dementia, first degree relatives, and healthy controls. Using Bayesian ANCOVA, we tested associations of MRI indices of cholinergic basal forebrain volume and functional connectivity with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) levels of sTREM2 as a marker of microglia activation, and serum levels of complement C3. Using Bayesian elastic net regression, we determined associations between basal forebrain measures and a large inflammation marker panel from CSF and serum. We found anecdotal to moderate evidence in favor of the absence of an effect of basal forebrain volume and functional connectivity on CSF sTREM2 and serum C3 levels both in Aβ42/ptau-positive and negative cases. Bayesian elastic net regression identified several CSF and serum markers of inflammation that were associated with basal forebrain volume and functional connectivity. The effect sizes were moderate to small. Our data-driven analyses generate the hypothesis that cholinergic basal forebrain may be involved in the neuroinflammation response to Aβ42 and phospho-tau pathology in people from the AD spectrum. This hypothesis needs to be tested in independent samples.

Nitric Oxide in Selective Cerebral Perfusion Could Enhance Neuroprotection During Aortic Arch Surgery.

BackgroundHypothermic circulatory arrest (HCA) in aortic arch surgery has a significant risk of neurological injury despite the newest protective techniques and strategies. Nitric oxide (NO) could exert a protective role, reduce infarct area and increase cerebral perfusion. This study aims to investigate the possible neuroprotective effects of NO administered in the oxygenator of selective antegrade cerebral perfusion (SCP) during HCA.MethodsThirty male SD adult rats (450–550 g) underwent cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB), cooling to 22°C body core temperature followed by 30 min of HCA. Rats were randomized to receive SCP or SCP added with NO (20 ppm) administered through the oxygenator (SCP-NO). All animals underwent CPB-assisted rewarming to a target temperature of 35°C in 60 min. At the end of the experiment, rats were sacrificed, and brain collected. Immunofluorescence analysis was performed in blind conditions.ResultsNeuroinflammation assessed by allograft inflammatory factor 1 or ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1 expression, a microglia activation marker was lower in SCP-NO compared to SCP (4.11 ± 0.59 vs. 6.02 ± 0.18%; p < 0.05). Oxidative stress measured by 8oxodG, was reduced in SCP-NO (0.37 ± 0.01 vs. 1.03 ± 0.16%; p < 0.05). Brain hypoxic area extent, analyzed by thiols oxidation was attenuated in SCP-NO (1.85 ± 0.10 vs. 2.74 ± 0.19%; p < 0.05). Furthermore, the apoptotic marker caspases 3 was significantly reduced in SCP-NO (10.64 ± 0.37 vs. 12.61 ± 0.88%; p < 0.05).ConclusionsNitric oxide administration in the oxygenator during SCP and HCA improves neuroprotection by decreasing neuroinflammation, optimizing oxygen delivery by reducing oxidative stress and hypoxic areas, finally decreasing apoptosis.

Astaxanthin Regulates PPAR-&amp;lt;i&amp;gt;γ&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;/NF-&amp;lt;i&amp;gt;κ&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;B Pathway to Mitigate Nerve Injury after Cerebral Ischemia/Reperfusion in Rats

Purpose: This research evaluates the efficacy of astaxanthin (AX) on cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury in rats and elucidates the potential mechanism of its neuronal protective effect. Methods: Rats were subjected to a middle cerebral artery occlusion/reperfusion (MCAO/R) model. Fifty grown male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were divided into 5 groups, including sham operation group (Sham), MCAO/R group, MCAO/R+AX group, MCAO/R+ AX+ Scramble group and MCAO/R+AX+ si-PPAR-γ group. The neurological score and cerebral infarction volume were evaluated after surgery. Rat microglia (RM) were stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to form an inflammatory environment. LPS-induced RM cells were incubated with different concentrations of AX (1, 5 or 10 μg/mL), then cell viability, the expression of microglial activation markers, including cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α), cluster of differentiation 68 (CD68), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and CD206 and the expression of PPAR-γ and phosphorylated P65 (p-P65) proteins were determined. Cells were treated with pcDNA-PPAR-γ, as well as treatment with si-PPAR-γ or PPAR-γ antagonist GW9662 before AX treatment, and then cell activation mediators were tested. Results: AX inhibits LPS-induced RM cells activation and enhanced the expression level of PPAR-γ protein in way of dose-dependent, and pcDNA-PPAR-γ treatment had the same effect as AX. While si-PPAR-γ transfection or PPAR-γ suppressant GW9662 treatment reversed the effect of AX, and cut down the level of PPAR-γ protein and augmented the level of p-P65 protein. In addition, AX treatment alleviated the infarct volume, and sensorimotor and cognitive functions of MCAO/R model rats. Conclusion: AX alleviates LPS-induced microglial injury and has a protective effect on rat cerebral I/R injury by regulating the PPAR-γ/NF-κB pathway.

Maprotiline ameliorates isoflurane-induced microglial activation via regulating triggering receptor expressed in myeloid cells 2 (TREM2)

ABSTRACT Isoflurane-induced neurotoxicity has attracted much interest. Recent studies suggest that isoflurane causes microglial activation, resulting in an inflammatory response and microglial insult. Maprotiline is a novel drug that has been licensed as an antidepressant with considerable anti-inflammatory activity. However, it is still unknown whether maprotiline possesses a protective effect against isoflurane-induced microglial insult. Here, we found that maprotiline ameliorated isoflurane-caused reduction in BV2 microglial cell viability and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release. Maprotiline mitigated isoflurane-induced oxidative stress by inhibiting reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and increasing superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity. Isoflurane-induced expression and production of inflammatory markers including tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-1β, cyclooxygenase‐2 (COX-2), and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) were decreased in maprotiline-treated cells. Maprotiline inhibited the mRNA and protein levels of Iba1, a marker of microglial activation, in isoflurane-induced BV2 cells. Maprotiline treatment restored isoflurane-induced reduction of TREM2 in BV2 microglial cells. In addition, the knockdown of TREM2 abolished the beneficial effects of maprotiline against isoflurane. Collectively, maprotiline exerted protective effects against isoflurane-caused oxidative stress, inflammatory response, and cell injury via regulating TREM2. These findings show that maprotiline prevented the isoflurane-induced microglial activation, indicating that maprotiline might be used as an optimal therapeutic agent for preventing the isoflurane-caused neurotoxicity.

The influence of sleep-wake rhythms on AD-related pathology in 3xTgAD mice.

Age-associated fragmentation of the daily sleep-wake rhythm is believed to be significant in the development of AD. While it is known that sleep deprivation can worsen AD-related pathology, such as amyloid (Aβ) deposition and neuroinflammation, the effects of fragmentation of the daily sleep-wake rhythm are unknown. It is possible that sleep fragmentation (SF), as a less stressful approach to the manipulation of the sleep-wake cycle, could better model AD-related sleep disturbances. We tested this hypothesis by subjecting female 3x-TgAD mice to a chronic SF protocol for a period of 4 weeks. SF consisted of 4 daily x 1 hour sleep disruptions, evenly interspersed throughout the light phase. During SF, mice were kept awake with novel objects and gently stimulated with a paintbrush; control mice were left undisturbed (US) during these periods. Mice were individually housed in PiezoSleep cages (Signal Solutions LLC) for sleep recordings during the first and fourth weeks of the study and group-housed in regular cages during the second and third weeks. Per 24 hours, SF mice exhibited significantly lower levels of sleep in the light phase (∼18% reduction) and higher levels of sleep in the dark phase (∼15% increase), with only a modest decrease (∼4%) in the total amount of daily sleep. After SF, Aβ40 and Aβ42 levels were significantly higher in the RIPA soluble fraction, as assayed by ELISA. An examination of mRNA using TaqMan low-density gene expression arrays indicated that markers of both microglial activation (ctsd, cst7, and clec7a) and proinflammatory cytokines (TNFα, IL6, and IL-1β) were elevated in mice subjected to SF as compared to the US group. Interestingly, the increase in Aβ and markers of neuroinflammation found in the hippocampus was not observed in the cortex, indicating at least some degree of neuroanatomical specificity in the effects of SF. These findings demonstrate that a protocol for fragmenting the daily sleep-wake rhythm in 3x-TgAD mice can impact the development of AD-related pathology. These studies also support the concept that improving sleep consolidation in individuals at risk for AD may be beneficial for slowing the onset or progression of AD.

Effects of APOE genotype, age and sex on cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers measured with NeuroToolKit in the Longitudinal Swedish Biofinder Cohort

AbstractBackgroundThe exploratory NeuroToolKit (Roche Diagnostics International Ltd.) is a panel of automated robust prototype assays measuring cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Alzheimer’s disease (AD) biomarkers. NeuroToolKit includes core AD biomarkers Aβ42, Aβ40, p‐tau181 and t‐tau, markers of synaptic dysfunction (α‐synuclein and neurogranin), astrocytosis (S100b, YKL‐40, glial fibrillary acidic protein [GFAP]), microglial activation and inflammation (sTREM2, IL‐6) and axonal injury (neurofilament light [NfL]). In this study, we investigated additional effects of APOE e4 genotype, age and sex on the change of the biomarkers over time in CSF samples from the longitudinal Swedish BioFINDER cohort.MethodCSF samples were collected at baseline and then at 2‐, 4‐, 6‐, 8‐ and 10‐years’ follow‐up from 1324 patients who were cognitively unimpaired (CU, n=801) or had mild cognitive impairment (n=265) or non‐AD dementias (n=258). Groups were stratified as Aβ positive (Aβ+) or negative (Aβ‐) according to CSF Aβ42/40 ratio (cut‐off&lt;0.07). Linear mixed‐effect models were used to assess interaction between time and APOE e4 genotype (no e4 allele, heterozygous e4, homozygous e4), sex and age stratified by cognitive status (CU&lt;65 years, CU≥65 years; cognitively impaired [CI] &lt;65 years, CI≥65 years).ResultAPOE e4 homozygous genotype was associated with a significant increase in Aβ42 and YKL‐40 levels in the Aβ+ group over time (versus subjects with no e4 allele) (Table 1A, Figure 1A‐B). In the Aβ‐ group, male sex was associated with a significant increase in IL‐6 and sTREM2 levels over time (Table 1B, Figure 1C‐D). Regardless of Aβ status, increased age was associated with increase in neurogranin, p‐tau181 and T‐tau over time and decrease in sTREM2 in the cohort as a whole (Table 2A). However, when stratified for age and clinical diagnosis, there was an increase in sTREM2 levels in the CI group (versus CU&lt;65 years) over time (Table 2B, Figure 1E). No significant effects of age, sex and APOE genotype were observed in the other biomarkers.ConclusionThe longitudinal change in most biomarkers in the NeuroToolKit is not affected by APOE e4 genotype, age and sex; however, significant effects of these factors on the measurement of some biomarkers warrant adjustment in such studies.

Citrullinated myelin induces microglial TNF\u03b1 and inhibits endogenous repair in the cuprizone model of demyelination

BackgroundMicroglia are the primary phagocytes of the central nervous system and are responsible for removing damaged myelin following demyelination. Previous investigations exploring the consequences of myelin phagocytosis on microglial activation overlooked the biochemical modifications present on myelin debris. Such modifications, including citrullination, are increased within the inflammatory environment of multiple sclerosis lesions.MethodsMouse cortical myelin isolated by ultracentrifugation was citrullinated ex vivo by incubation with the calcium-dependent peptidyl arginine deiminase PAD2. Demyelination was induced by 6 weeks of cuprizone (0.3%) treatment and spontaneous repair was initiated by reversion to normal chow. Citrullinated or unmodified myelin was injected into the primary motor cortex above the cingulum bundle at the time of reversion to normal chow and the consequent impact on remyelination was assessed by measuring the surface area of myelin basic protein-positive fibers in the cortex 3 weeks later. Microglial responses to myelin were characterized by measuring cytokine release, assessing flow cytometric markers of microglial activation, and RNAseq profiling of transcriptional changes.ResultsCitrullinated myelin induced a unique microglial response marked by increased tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) production both in vitro and in vivo. This response was not induced by unmodified myelin. Injection of citrullinated myelin but not unmodified myelin into the cortex of cuprizone-demyelinated mice significantly inhibited spontaneous remyelination. Antibody-mediated neutralization of TNFα blocked this effect and restored remyelination to normal levels.ConclusionsThese findings highlight the role of post-translation modifications such as citrullination in the determination of microglial activation in response to myelin during demyelination. The inhibition of endogenous repair induced by citrullinated myelin and the reversal of this effect by neutralization of TNFα may have implications for therapeutic approaches to patients with inflammatory demyelinating disorders.

Plasma and serum neurofilament-light levels increase in an age- and pathology-dependent manner in the Arctic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most prevalent form of dementia of the elderly in the US. No disease-modifying drugs have been approved, indicating a need for novel targets and relevant biomarkers to follow treatment efficacy. Neurofilament-light (NfL) is an intermediate filament protein in neurons that increases in plasma after injury and neurodegeneration, suggesting it may be a biomarker of neurodegeneration before other symptoms are evident. Here, we measured blood NfL levels in the Arctic AD mouse and compared levels to a neuroprotective Arctic model in which C5aR1 was genetically ablated (C5aR1KO) and to levels of a microglial activation marker CD11c and fibrillar plaque load in brain. Blood was collected via cardiac puncture from WT, Arctic, C5aR1KO, and ArcticC5aR1KO at 5, 7, 10, and 13 months of age and processed for plasma or serum isolation. The MSD NfL kit was used to detect NfL. Immunohistochemical detection of CD11c-positive microglia and ThioS-stained plaques were analyzed by Imaris. Comparison of NfL in both WT and Arctic mice demonstrated increased levels in Arctic and WT with increasing age (p=0.02 and 0.01, respectively) and a trend for greater levels in Arctic vs WT at 7 (p=0.1) and 13 (p=0.08) months. In ArcticC5aR1KO mice, there was a 44% reduction in NfL compared to Arctic mice at 7 months. Interestingly, by 10 months, NfL levels in ArcticC5aR1KO plasma was 35% higher than in Arctic mice, suggesting that the protective effect observed at 7 months in the ArcticC5aR1KO mice is superseded by 10 months. Similarly, the increase in CD11c and ThioS levels were lower (44%, 37% respectively) in the hippocampus of ArcticC5aR1KO CONCLUSION: This study demonstrated that NfL modulation can be detected with therapeutic intervention (i.e. C5aR1KO), and that changes in NfL paralleled changes in CD11c-positive microglia and fibrillar plaque load. These data suggest that blood levels of NfL can be used in the Arctic mouse model of AD as a biomarker of age and disease progression, which may serve as a noninvasive tool to measure treatment efficacy.