Maritime Strategy Research Articles

Bolstering Sustainable Growth through Blue Economy

High pace of industrial growth accompanied by the population surge is putting enormous pressure on economic planning. From time immemorial oceans and waterways have been a source of sustainable economic prosperity as oceans cover 70 percent of the earth’s surface and have the potential to support human economic activity. Today, nations are putting effort and resources to leverage their maritime potential for the sustainability and prosperity of their populace and also provide opportunities for the next generations in a hope that through proper planning and implementation of the maritime policies an eco-balanced maritime strategy can be inactive that ensures socio-economic development of the respective countries. Pakistan is blessed with a coastal belt of 1,046 km which is strategically located and is part of the 21st century’s Maritime Silk Route. With natural ports having full potentials like Gwadar and Karachi that not only connects regional stakeholders but also has the potential as the engine of growth and development for Pakistan and a regional hum of maritime connectivity. It is evident from empirical data that the Blue economy of Pakistan is extremely important not only for Pakistan but also for the entire region as part of MSR. This paper targets to analyze the maritime sector situation of Pakistan under the Blue economy and its pertinence for Pakistan through some realistic policies as the constructive implementation of maritime sector-related policies will play a pivotal role in attaining the Blue growth in Pakistan. The key objective of this study is to focus on the sustainable blue growth of Pakistan, as there is a void in the literature on this topic concerning to Pakistan. This paper fills that gap by offering a conceptual framework to guide policy-makers in Pakistan on the policy recommendations to attain sustainable blue growth in Pakistan.

STRATEGIC ROLE OF INDIAN NAVY IN IOR AT PRESENT

The Indian Ocean Region (IOR) turned out to be the most engaging region for global activities in recent years. The Indian Ocean consists of the most important trade routes of the world. The Indian Ocean provides a way to move through various regions of the world. World's huge economic players always keep an eye on the IOR for its strategic importance. The Indian Ocean is a gateway to the Atlantic Ocean through the Mediterranean Sea via the Red Sea and it also provides a way to the Pacific Ocean through the Strait of Malacca. It is the main shipping channel for the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. The Indian Ocean region is spread over 28 states, three continents and covers 17.5% of the global land area. The IOR is home to almost 36% of the population of the world. The region is proven to have a rich petroleum resources and other metals. Indian Ocean is also a rich source of fish and its export. Major Sea routes of the world pass through the Indian Ocean that connects the Middle East, Africa, and East Asia with Europe and the Americas. The Indian Ocean Region (IOR) has become a home for economic developments, disputes, conflicts, and competition for regional influence by regional and extra-regional powers. The Trade flow from IOR across the globe has its importance for the global economy as well as regional countries. The growing presence of regional power (China) is a major concern for India and other regional countries and that has compelled them to reshape their maritime strategies. This article aims to state the importance of IOR in Indian reference and Chinese presence in IOR and its strategies.

Realignments and evolving nuclear capabilities in the Indian Ocean: effects on security environment

ABSTRACT The strategic maritime environment of the Indian Ocean exhibits growing geopolitical tussle between the U.S. and China and have regional implications. In an attempt to contain the rising influence of China, U.S. strengthens its collaboration with India to elevate its status as a ‘net security provider’ in the region by offering it access to highly sophisticated defence related equipment. This paper is an attempt to contextualise the regional dimension of superpower rivalry. It offers analysis of India’s evolving maritime strategy and primarily focuses on two significant trends that directly undermine regional stability. These include: first, introduction of ‘Indo-Pacific’ as a regional construct that enables India to enhance its naval capabilities and use maritime diplomacy to forge strategic relationships in its pursuit of dominating the Ocean and secondly, the maritime dimension of South Asian strategic environment where India’s pursuit of sea-based nuclear forces further adds to New Delhi’s aggressive nuclear posture and directly undermines deterrence stability vis-à-vis Pakistan.

The Political and Strategic impacts of the U.S. Advantage at Sea 2020 for the Brazilian Maritime Domain

This the English version of our latest report on the document "U.S Advantage at Sea: Prevailing with Integrated All-Domain Naval Power (USAS)". Our main goal was to briefly indicate the impact of this document on Brazil, both politically and strategically. We contextualise the U.S strategic maritime documents since the 9/11 attacks, highlight the main concepts of the current USAS and elaborate on the consequences for Brazil. Our key finding was that, from a political standpoint, the USAS brings challenges to Brazil when qualifying enemies such as Russia and China. On the other hand, the focus on interoperability and new technologies might contribute to Brazil’s future maritime strategy. This brief analysis is divided into three parts: the first intends to contextualise the U.S strategic maritime documents since the 9/11 attacks; the second aims to summarize the USAS’ most relevant concepts for Brazil’s Sea Power, and the third part elaborates on the overall consequences for Brazil.

Maritime strategy of Pakistan: Development and future prospects

The Indian Ocean accounts half of the world's container shipments, two-thirds of oil product shipments and a third of bulk cargo. Pakistan as a significant regional power laying claims to a higher role in regional trade. But it demands effective naval forces capable of resisting both traditional (possible blockade of Pakistan's seaports if an armed conflict with India takes place) and non-traditional threats (piracy in the Strait of Hormuz). The article examines the evolution of Pakistan's naval strategy from the moment of gaining independence to the present day. The article provides a brief historical overview of the development of the country's naval strategy, analyzes the place of the Pakistani Navy in the armed forces, their role in the implementation of the China-Pakistan economic corridor (CPEC), considers Pakistan's initiatives in the field of regional maritime security, as well as the processes of modernizing the fleet. The author believes that the role of the Navy in Pakistan's grand strategy will only increase due to both economic and regional security factors. The author claims that the role of the maritime strategy and the Pakistani Navy in the country's foreign policy will increase, which is explained by the need to ensure maritime security to implement the key economic project of the CPEC, as well to build a regional security system in the Indian Ocean resistant to all types of threats. The author invokes historical methods to analyze the evolution of Pakistani maritime strategy and hermeneutics to consider the current development of the strategy and its prospects.

India and China in the Indian Ocean: Changing Dimensions of Maritime Strategy

In Asian and global power politics a maritime strategic angle concentrates on the value of fortifying and controlling sea lines of communications (SLOCs) for stability, economic growth, and development of nations. Consequently, both India and China are snooping to control SLOCs and safeguard their emergent and escalating worldwide interests. The advancement in and expansion of naval power satisfies the corresponding nationalist aspirations of Beijing and New Delhi. As a result, the development of their maritime capabilities would have a greater impact on the naval security architecture in the Indian Ocean. The hike in Chinese engagements across the Indian Ocean widely known as the String of Pearl’s stratagem is principally stimulated by a policy of maritime encirclement of India. Struggle to secure tactical energy resources which are quickly revolutionizing their navies could induce clashes and have major repercussions for global security affairs. Harmonious handling of both China’s and India’s cooperation will be crucial for regional as well as international peace and opulence shortly and everyone looks upon a fabulous Asia reflected in the world. Thus, this paper analyses the underlying factors that motivate both countries to have ambitious objectives in the Indian Ocean and could find out that securing energy is one of the driving forces in securing maritime dominance across the Indian Ocean.

Approaches to the selection of phytoplancton monitoring stations on the example of North Odessa Cape

The selection of monitoring stations is one of the important methodological tasks to be solved in the process of planning long-term environmental research. This determines the need to find approaches that meet the criteria of the EU Marine Strategy when selecting coastal phytoplankton monitoring stations. One of them is the use of the results of the interpretation of satellite data. They can be an effective tool in analyzing the heterogeneity of water mass distribution in the area where coastal monitoring is planned and allow to determine the water area to which its results can be extended. The next stage is a comprehensive study, which analyzes the heterogeneity of the distribution of phytoplankton in the local coastal waters and identifies the factors that determine these differences. According to the results of this analysis, the optimal location and number of monitoring stations is determined. These approaches are demonstrated by the example of studies of the local coastal Black Sea area. Analysis of the distribution of phytoplankton at 6 stations in the area of North Odessa Cape revealed significant differences in the vertical and horizontal distribution of phytoplankton. Studies of hydrological (surface temperature, turbidity and flow direction) and hydrochemical parameters have explained these differences as a consequence of the influence of specific factors. The main ones were the different nature of water exchange and differences in the content of organic and mineral forms of nutrients at stations. This led to different types of biomass distribution at stations and even significant differences in the taxonomic structure of phytoplankton groups within the local water area. The conducted research allowed to determine locations where the impact of natural features of shores, artificial coastal structures and sources of coastal eutrophication is minimal. This allows them to be used as permanent monitoring stations in accordance with the standards of the EU Maritime Strategy.

India and China in the Indian Ocean: Changing Dimensions of Maritime Strategy

In Asian and global power politics a maritime strategic angle concentrates on the value of fortifying and controlling sea lines of communications (SLOCs) for stability, economic growth, and development of nations. Consequently, both India and China are snooping to control SLOCs and safeguard their emergent and escalating worldwide interests. The advancement in and expansion of naval power satisfies the corresponding nationalist aspirations of Beijing and New Delhi. As a result, the development of their maritime capabilities would have a greater impact on the naval security architecture in the Indian Ocean. The hike in Chinese engagements across the Indian Ocean widely known as the String of Pearl’s stratagem is principally stimulated by a policy of maritime encirclement of India. Struggle to secure tactical energy resources which are quickly revolutionizing their navies could induce clashes and have major repercussions for global security affairs. Harmonious handling of both China’s and India’s cooperation will be crucial for regional as well as international peace and opulence shortly and everyone looks upon a fabulous Asia reflected in the world. Thus, this paper analyses the underlying factors that motivate both countries to have ambitious objectives in the Indian Ocean and could find out that securing energy is one of the driving forces in securing maritime dominance across the Indian Ocean.

Modelling of underwater noise emissions by ships in Klaipėda Strait, Lithuania

One of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals regarding “conservation and sustainable use of the oceans, seas, and marine resources” emphasizes the urgency of eliminating harmful effects on the sea and its biota, where the role of anthropogenic activities is crucial. The global trend of merchant shipping is increasing, thus enlarging underwater noise levels. As a result, greater noise can harm aquatic animals in their habitats. In the Baltic Sea, the underwater sound pressure levels are now being evaluated utilizing noise measurement, modelling, and mapping. In areas such as narrow ship passages, namely lagoons, channels, or straits, the ambient underwater noise modelling becomes very complex, even though these EU inland waters are regarded by legislation as part of the marine basin. For instance, the Klaipėda Channel (Klaipėda Strait), connecting the Baltic Sea and the Curonian Lagoon, is regarded by the national Lithuanian legislation as part of marine waters, where the environmental status should be evaluated according to the EU Maritime Strategy Framework Directive. In this narrow channel, an alternative to the modelling of ambient sound pressure levels can be applied to understand the long-term trends of vessel-sourced noise emissions. In this paper, an example of application of ship noise emission modelling for a narrow Klaipėda Harbour area is presented, along with the results obtained throughout 2015–2017. The modelled noise levels in the harbour area reached the median levels of 112.5 dB in 2015 and 102.6 dB re 1 µPa2 in 2017. The maximum emitted instantaneous sound pressure levels by ships reached 173.7 dB in 2015 and 179.4 dB re 1 µPa2 in 2017 in the area of interest.

Carriers and Amphibs: Shibboleths of Sea Power

This article argues that American naval force packages built around aircraft carriers and amphibious assault ships no longer serve maritime security interests as effectively as in the past. It further claims that the current commitment in the published maritime strategy of the United States to the twin shibboleths of “carriers and amphibs” comes from a variety of attitudes held by senior decision makers and military leaders. This commitment betrays both cultural misunderstanding or even ignorance of seapower—“sea blindness”—as well as less than rational attachments to two operational capabilities that served the United States well in the past, but in doing so engendered emotional commitments that are little grounded in the facts.

The Antigallican Affair: Public and Ministerial Responses to Anglo-Spanish Maritime Conflict in the Seven Years War, 1756–1758

Abstract In the first year of the Seven Years War, on 26 December 1756, the British privateer Antigallican captured the French East Indiaman Le Duc de Penthièvre some way off of the Spanish town of Ferrol. In short order the Duc de Penthièvre was given back to the French by Spanish authorities. The actions of the Spanish were a violation of Spain’s stated neutrality in the conflict and led to a protracted diplomatic incident that tested the commitment of Britain’s government to the preservation of Spain’s maritime neutrality, which was key to Britain’s overall wartime maritime strategy. Focusing on the Antigallican affair, this article presents a case-study which affords insight into how ministers dealt with public opinion that was in opposition to strategic needs at a specific political point in time, and over a specific issue. It also suggests that using measures based on the volume and intensity of press coverage as a proxy for public influence on policy making is an uncertain approach. By looking more deeply into the political, personal, and historical contexts of making policy, a micro-history offers a more certain method for understanding the complexity of policy-making and the power of the press at any given time. The point of such a close study is not to generalise about the power of the press to influence policy in the mid-eighteenth century, rather, it is to show that such generalisations are fraught with unanticipated errors and assumptions that gloss over the complexity of interactions between politics and public opinion.

Book Review: A Brief Guide to Maritime Strategy

Book Review: A Brief Guide to Maritime Strategy

이순신의 잊혀진 해전 절이도해전의 교전 상황 및 학익진 연구: 이순신의 해양전략·전술을 중심으로

이순신의 잊혀진 해전 절이도해전의 교전 상황 및 학익진 연구: 이순신의 해양전략·전술을 중심으로

The 2050 Africa’s Integrated Maritime Strategy: The Combined Exclusive Maritime Zone of Africa as an instrument of sustainable development of the African Large Marine Ecosystems

Abstract: The large marine ecosystems (LMEs) and the combined exclusive maritime zone of Africa (CEMZA) have in common that they are instruments making it possible to overcome the division of the African Maritime Domain into almost 40 national maritime domains. After identifying the eight LMEs around Africa and exploring the CEMZA concept within the context of the 2050 Africa’s Integrated Maritime Strategy, the paper attempts to ascertain the extent to which the establishment of the CEMZA could contribute to the sustainable development of the African LMEs and concludes that, while this contribution would be limited, it could be significant at the monitoring and enforcement levels.

The Emergence of China as a “Great Maritime Power”

The article discusses strategic intentions and practical actions of modern Chinese leadership aimed to make China a “great maritime power”. The authors analyze theoretical investigations of Chinese scientists in the fields of maritime strategy and politics; examine basic principle of contemporary Chinese maritime policy, Beijing strategic documents and specific plans aimed at developing marine activities, as well as the problems that arise on this way and some practical results achieved. The authors conclude that despite an active “sea rhetoric” of Chinese top leaderships, the global ocean is not in the main focus of Chinese politics which is primarily oriented towards Eurasian continent. For the PRC leadership, “turning China into a great sea power” neither an ultimate goal, nor a path to achieve the world hegemony, but one of the means to solve some goals to support country’s economic and social development. Today main efforts of Chinese maritime policy are aimed at the ocean studies, legal and technical preparation for excavation of deepwater resources, marine environmental protection, upholding the sea rights and interests of China. As far as Beijing considers the “near seas” as “vital” for ensuring China economic and military‑political security, it acts in their space offensively, actively and uncompromisingly. However, although China’s maritime policy focuses mainly on achieving the economic goals, for the past decade the country’s maritime economy has developed at a slower pace than the country’s economy as a whole. The authors conclude that China has a lot to do in order to effectively use not only its own sea space, but also the vast resources of the global oceans to realize the ambitious goals and objectives of the country’s development.

AU AIM Strategy and the Fragmentation of IUU Fishing Regulations in Africa: the Case of West Africa

Abstract In Africa, the west suffers the most from Illegal, Unreported, and unregulated fishing which necessitated national, regional, and continental efforts to put in place legal mechanisms to halt the situation. This resulted in the fragmentation of rules dealing with IUU, with AU’s 2050 African Maritime Strategy and the Lomé Charter being the grand Continental ones. This article will provide a brief assessment of the legal mechanisms of the African Union vis-à-vis the rules of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and the fragmentation or harmonization of those rules. The paper argues that fragmentation of rules at regional and sub-regional levels is not necessarily counterproductive as long as all parties coordinate by focusing on filling existing gaps rather than allowing overlaps.

동아시아 공세적 해양주의 : 공격적 현실주의 이론과 동북아 4강의 해양전략

동아시아 바다에 공격적 현실주의 이론이 주장하는 속성이 나타나고 있다. 중앙권위체가 부재한 환경 속에 미국의 패권적 지위조차 약화되기 시작하면서 “현상변경”이 시도되고 있으며 이런 과정에서 “힘의 극대화” 역학에 빠져들고 있다. 특히 동북아 4강-미국, 중국, 일본, 한국-은 이미 해양국가이거나 현재 해양국가를 지향하면서 모두 “해양 영향력” 극대화라는 공통적 행동패턴을 드러내고 있다. 이런 “공세적 해양주의”는 역내국가들이 해양전략을 공세적으로 진화시키며 가속화되고 있다. 특히 공세적 해양전략이 관할해역 및 관심해역의 확장, 해양력 투사능력의 신장, 전방기지의 확대라는 형태로 패턴화되고 있다. 공세적 해양주의는 동아시아 바다가 “절대이익”의 개념이 아닌 “상대이익”의 역학이 가동되고 있다는 의미다. 공세우위 메커니즘에서 수세적 정책을 고수하면 국익과 안보에 불리하다. 따라서 공세적 “해양접근” 개념이 녹아있는 해양전략의 정교화가 요구되고 해양국가로의 진화템포도 가속화되어야 한다. 더불어 공세우위 메커니즘에서 국익과 안보를 위해 한미동맹을 효과적으로 활용하는 전략적, 정책적 혜안이 요구된다.

PT Pelindo Marine Service: An Alternative Strategy for Maintenance of the Indonesian Navy’s Warships

The sea defense strategy, and concepts related to maritime strategy, relating to the overall strategy for achieving victory at sea. In securing the sea, the navy is very dependent on the main weapons system, especially warships. The Indonesian Navy in carrying out its duties rests on the strength of the IFWS (Integrated Fleet Weapons System): Warship, Aircraft, Marines, and Base. The four components of the IFWS are always maintained in combat readiness. One of the ship maintenance facilities in Surabaya that has the potential to be able to carry out maintenance of Navy ships is PT Pelindo Marine Service in Surabaya. This research uses descriptive qualitative approach. Logistics management theory and SWOT analysis are used by researchers as an analysis tool. The results of this study are the logistics management of PT PMS has ability to maintain Navy ships to support sea defense. Constraints faced by PT PMS include: (1) High sedimentation; (2) Inlet flow is crowded, narrow and shallow; and (4) Small dock capacity. The strategies developed by PT PMS to overcome obstacles in the maintenance of the navy’s ships: (1) Implement efficiency in HR, methods, budgets, and infrastructure to maximize profits; (2) Cooperation with similar companies; (3) Investing: dredging, increasing the capacity of the dockyard, and firefighting equipment, and damage control (controlling losses) so it does not get worse than expected.

Assessing Indonesian Maritime Strategy: Current Evolution and Future Prospects

executive summary: This essay examines the evolution of Indonesia's maritime strategy—in particular, the approach adopted under President Joko "Jokowi" Widodo known as the Global Maritime Fulcrum (GMF)—and assesses the implications for the country's strategic thinking in the future. main argumentThough the GMF is a key inflection point in the evolution of Indonesian maritime strategy and made some progress during Jokowi's first term, several key opportunities were not realized and the strategy faced severe shortcomings in the way it was defined, messaged, resourced, coordinated, and institutionalized. To fully achieve the potential of Indonesia's maritime strategy, the Indonesian government will have to take a series of measures at home and abroad, both on its own and in concert with other regional and global actors, to address lingering challenges and seize new opportunities during Jokowi's second term and beyond. Using interviews with key figures, primary and secondary sources, and an original analytical framework, this essay comprehensively assesses Indonesia's maritime strategy under Jokowi and specifies ways in which the government can manage existing challenges and further advance its maritime strategy in the Indo-Pacific region over the coming years. policy implications • Given the significance of the GMF as an inflection point in Indonesia's wider thinking on maritime issues, the Indonesian government needs to urgently address uncertainty about the GMF's future by reinforcing the clarity of its messaging and increasing policy coordination among government agencies. • Beyond rhetoric, Indonesia should focus on strategically and sustainably shoring up its maritime capabilities, including building up the country's resource base and strengthening its capacities at sea. • Even if Indonesia's maritime strategy remains focused on domestic and development issues for the foreseeable future, Jakarta can work toward a comprehensive maritime approach by building out the foreign policy aspects of it, including through work in regional and global institutions. • Apart from what Indonesia can do itself, the country could also integrate aspects of its maritime approach with those of other Indo-Pacific and global partners, including the U.S., Japan, India, and Australia.

Explaining Japan’s post-Cold War security policy trajectory: maritime realism

ABSTRACT Why has Japan shifted towards a more active security posture since the end of the Cold War? Japan’s security policy under Prime Minister Abe has triggered numerous discussions on the changing nature of Japan as a security actor. This article identifies two independent variables—the balance of power calculations and secure access to the maritime commons—that informs Japan’s security policy trajectory. It argues that Japanese strategy is best described as ‘maritime realism’, a posture in which liberal internationalist and realist elements draw upon principles of maritime strategy to fuse together. Japan has not only actively facilitated US commitment to maritime Asia but also focused on expanding its role in maritime security as the maritime space in the Indo-Pacific has increasingly become a contested space. While Tokyo’s security policy corresponds with structural realist predictions, they have also been frequently expressed in liberal internationalist language given the peculiar nature of the role of navies. This article’s findings advance theoretical debates on alliance politics and great power competition by integrating international relations and concepts in strategic studies. It also contains significant explanatory power in assessing the trajectory of Japan’s defence policy since the end of the Cold War.