Maritime Policy Research Articles

Critical infrastructure at sea and the energy security of the Republic of Poland.

In this article, the author will present issues directly related to the security of critical infrastructure, which includes, inter alia, infrastructure ensuring energy security of our country. In view of the geopolitical events that we have witnessed recently, this is one of the key problems to be solved in the legislative and systemic spheres. The problem of legislative, competence and equipment shortages in securing the critical infrastructure of the Republic of Poland at sea has been repeatedly signaled, but very often it was met with some leniency, as no one assumed that a conflict that was so brutal and "classic" in its shape could occur. Russia's aggression against Ukraine has arisen. Critical infrastructure includes not only future offshore wind farms, but also, inter alia, ports, refineries, power plants, mining platforms, etc., the protection of which would require serious revision. In this publication, however, the author will focus primarily on issues related to offshore wind energy and possible investments related to the production of hydrogen in Polish maritime areas. Key words: critical infrastructure, energy policy, maritime policy, maritime law.

원제국 외래 香藥과 카안의 賞賜 ― 南海海上 생산 香藥을 중심으로 ―

This study examined the distribution and consumption of herbal medicines in the Yuan, which was traded as the main product in international trade in the 13th and 14th centuries. This study focused on herbal medicines produced in the Southern coastal region, which ranged from Southeast Asia to India, and flowed into the Yuan. This research confirmed that rare herbal medicines produced in the southern coastal region and other countries were valued by Mongol rulers and were not only used in the herbal medicines and cuisines in the Mongol court but also served as imperial gifts.BR After annexing the Southern Song, the Mongol advanced to the ocean and began to form political relations with countries on the southeastern coast and begin international trade with the southern maritime powers. Although maritime trade did not take place due to the fierce opposition in the southern maritime reigimes, a full-fledged maritime trade system was established postwar in the late 13th century, and the trade between the Yuan and southern maritime regimes began under the leadership of various people, including soldiers, bureaucrats, and merchants. Shibo(市舶) trade began at this point, as per the Southern Song dynasty’s maritime policy. According to Zhizheng Simingzhi(『至正四明志』), herbal medicines accounted for 170 products out of a total of 220 types of products that were imported through maritime trade. These products were not only imported from Southeast Asia but also countries in West and East Asia. A portion of the herbal medicine that reached the trade port was collected as tax in accordance with the Yuan’s shibo(市舶) regulations, and the rest were circulated in the markets.BR Yuyaoyuanfang(『御藥院方』), a book on medicine publishe d in the Yuan Empire, includes the recipes and effects of medicines prepared for the Mongol Qaghans. The list of medicinal herbs that were used confirms that herbal medicines presented or imported from Southern maritime powers were used as essential ingredients. Yinshanzhengyao(『飮膳正要』), a cookbook for Mongolian rulers, also introduces foreign herbal medicines as food ingredients, which shows that foreign herbal medicines were used as spices and that the herbal medicines from the southern sea, in particular, were used in medicinal drinks consumed by the ruling class, including the Mongol Rulers. The medicines or medicinal herbs prepared in the Yuan royal court were also bestowed on Imperial family members, court ministers, and Keshigs as imperial gifts or were shared among the ruling class, with the imported herbal medicines as the main ingredients. Such findings suggest that the herbal medicines and related knowledge brought into East Asia as maritime trade became active in the 10th century were transmitted to the Yuan empire through Mongol’s maritime policy and that the herbal medicines were shared among the Mongol Imperial Members as a privilege.

Maritime Policy: Marine Toll to Ensure Availability Of Coconut Trunk Supply Chain On Morotai Island

The development of the trunk industry in Indonesia is currently growing from year to year along with the increasing population, technological advances, industry, and science. The furniture industry in the current era is increasing over time because this industrial sector provides unique and creative interior designs and artistic values that offer comfort to support various activities. With the development of the furniture industry, the demand for wood has also increased, which has led to increasingly fierce competition in the wood industry. Morotai Island Regency is located at the northernmost tip of North Maluku Province, bordering the Pacific Ocean. Its area is 4,301 km2. Accessibility there is complex, and development growth is still minimal. This area includes underdeveloped, remote, outermost, and border areas (3TP). To achieve the welfare of the people in Morotai Island, the Marine Toll Road is a solution offered to reduce the price disparity for coconut trunks from Morotai, which must pass through Tobelo Regency and then be sent to Java.

Periphery and Forefront: The Evolution of the Status of Coastal Areas and Territorial Seas in Ancient Zhoushan Islands

In the early stage of China, due to the mainland regime’s control over the Zhoushan Islands, the sea border of Zhoushan Islands was in the marginal position of the country. This marginal position was caused by objective reasons, namely “objective periphery”. The abandonment of the county-level administrative system of Zhoushan Islands in the Tang Dynasty due to Yuan Chao’s uprising in Wengshan was a subjective marginalization of the status of Zhoushan Islands in the sea, that is, “subjective periphery”. The subjective periphery is completely different from the objective periphery in nature. It reflects the consciousness of the rulers at that time on a more important level. The maritime policy towards Zhoushan Islands in the Song and Yuan Dynasties not only reflected the ruler’s consciousness and the positive attitude of active openness in policy, but also reflected the forefront status of Zhoushan Islands, which was the “active forefront” period of Zhoushan Islands. The maritime embargo policy and port closure policy in the Ming and Qing Dynasties are the manifestation of the rulers’ active periphery of Zhoushan Islands, but Zhoushan Islands is still the passive forefront of the national sea. The changes of the policies of the successive regimes towards the sea and forefront of Zhoushan Islands are not only the embodiment of the national consciousness at that time, but also the embodiment of the national destiny.

Maritime Policy: Marine Toll to Ensure Availability Of Coconut Trunk Supply Chain On Morotai Island

The development of the trunk industry in Indonesia is currently growing from year to year along with the increasing population, technological advances, industry, and science. The furniture industry in the current era is increasing over time because this industrial sector provides unique and creative interior designs and artistic values that offer comfort to support various activities. With the development of the furniture industry, the demand for wood has also increased, which has led to increasingly fierce competition in the wood industry. Morotai Island Regency is located at the northernmost tip of North Maluku Province, bordering the Pacific Ocean. Its area is 4,301 km2. Accessibility there is complex, and development growth is still minimal. This area includes underdeveloped, remote, outermost, and border areas (3TP). To achieve the welfare of the people in Morotai Island, the Marine Toll Road is a solution offered to reduce the price disparity for coconut trunks from Morotai, which must pass through Tobelo Regency and then be sent to Java.

Does Acknowledging China’s Claim To The South China Sea Open Trade Doors To Economic Advantages For The Philippines

This study evaluates the effect of the Philippine maritime policy on diplomatic relations with China, and whether maintaining positive relations translates to economic advantages for the Philippines during the Duterte regime (2016-present), and compares this to that of the previous period, the Aquino regime (2010-2016). This study finds that maritime policy does not have a large impact on trade, economic sanctions, and foreign aid in the Philippines. There are no benefits nor disadvantages attained as a result of maintaining an Anti-China maritime policy, and any differences noted were marginal at best. This study compares economic outcomes during different administrations based on their maritime policy stance. It also employs process tracing in trade policies and foreign aid received under Aquino, compared to another Former Philippine President Arroyo, who served from 2001-2010 and maintained a neutral stance.

Bibliometric analysis of maritime tourism research

ABSTRACT Maritime tourism is a niche market that provides maritime nations with an additional source of foreign exchange and employments. However, due to a lack of awareness of the significance of the maritime tourism sector, a very few studies have investigated the problems faced by this sub sector. Therefore, this paper aimed to identify the problems faced by the maritime tourism industry and propose solutions with which to overcome these obstacles. A bibliometric analysis technique was used to scour databases, such as Scopus and Web of Science (WoS); with VOS Viewer. The content analysis was carried out and then coded using QSR International's NVivo 12. The paper found that the maritime tourism industry is currently plagued by six major problem clusters. These were classified as (a) governmental and political supports, (b) environmental issues, (c) cooperation among stakeholders, (d) maritime tourism law and policies, (e) technological matters, and (f) maritime tourism knowledge. Therefore, this present study proposes the development of a new market; the smart maritime tourism market; which is the most effective and efficient approach of overcoming the current issues. It is believed that smart maritime tourism will not only benefit maritime nations but also adjacent landlocked nations.

Is electric battery propulsion for ships truly the lifecycle energy solution for marine environmental protection as a whole?

This paper was inspired to answer the fundamental question on whether electric battery powered ships can ultimately be a promising solution for future maritime environmental protection. The overall process was designed to demystify the holistic environmental benefits and harms of 14 primary energy sources for electricity production in consideration of the national-specific cases of 33 countries. A series of comparative analyses between the diesel as the reference fuel and the battery-electric propulsions were conducted with 27 short-route ferries engaged in Scotland coastal areas. A key message obtained from the analysis results were that the impact of battery application was far from the zero-emission shipping in the lifecycle perspective. Moreover, the same vessels were found to yield completely different environmental performances, depending on how those countries produce electricity. In some Asian countries heavily relying on fossil-based power generation, the environmental impact of battery operation was estimated far greater than that of diesel operation in the UK. Case studies were, then, scaled-up to about 5500 marine vessels presently engaged in international voyages. In general, consistent results were found. Research findings distinctively demonstrated the misguidance of current maritime policies for encouraging battery-powered ships and identified that these shortcomings would stem from the limitations of current practices of maritime environmental assessment. Lastly, it strongly suggested to the marine industry and stakeholders that the environmental protection from shipping activities would be not only a matter of ships but also a matter of how the national power grid develops.

Maritime Policy Design Framework with ESG Performance Approach: Case of Estonia

In policy-making, the design of a policy is considered to be one of the most significant steps. A well designed policy will be able to solve sectoral problems across stakeholders as well as support the competitive development of the entire economy. Enterprises of the maritime sector have been influenced by environmental, social, and governance (ESG) changes with the push coming from financiers, insurers, regulators, and customers. To meet the ESG challenges and utilize the benefits ahead, they need to be addressed in the new policy design processes. The specificities of a maritime sector as well as science-based policy-making framework are the fundamentals of successful maritime policy development. Estonia is located on the eastern border of the EU, and has always aimed to be a maritime state. National maritime policy has been adopted (2012–2020) and currently, the Estonian Transport and Mobility Master Plan incorporates maritime aspects. Actors of the maritime sector have remained dissatisfied and advocate the reinstatement and redevelopment of Estonian maritime policy. The aim of this study was to present a framework for the design of maritime policy that uses maritime economics, ESG performance goals, and policy design analyses as inputs. As a result, a maritime policy design framework is proposed.

Models of Lobbying Practices in Maritime Affairs of USA and European Countries

The article is based on a comparative analysis of the most effective institutionally established models of modern lobbying practices for pursuing interests in the field of maritime activities in the developed countries of Europe and the United States. The study is carried out on several grounds: the Full Time Equivalent (FTE) of a lobbyist, the expected financial investments of organizations in lobbying activities, an assessment of the transparency of the activities of lobbying organizations. Based on the revealed correlation of FTE and expected investments, the analysis of the model’s efficiency is simplified to an estimate of the value of its total FTE of the described models. Particular emphasis is placed on the analysis of lobbying in cooperation with the European Commission. It has been determined that environmental organizations and groups of influence that are not directly related to maritime activities are particularly active in lobbying for maritime activities. When comparing the lobbying infrastructure of Western countries in the context of its effectiveness in defending national interests, there is a significant advantage of the United States over the European Union. Regarding the adoption of Western models of lobbying practices and the spread of institutionalization of lobbying on the territory of the Russian Federation, it is recognized that for Russia, its maritime policy, the most effective American model would be, based on a single legal basis, allowing taxed lobbying agents to act in concert on the domestic and global market in the interests of private companies and the nation state.

Some Results of the Implementation of EU Maritime Policy in 2021

Some Results of the Implementation of EU Maritime Policy in 2021

9 - Maritime Policy and Economic Development: A Comparison of Nigerian and Japanese Experiences since the Second World War

It is now generally recognized that the maritime sector could, if properly harnessed, play a critical role in the development of regional, national and global economies. This is in view of the growth-pole potentials of ports and ancillary industries. Although a comparison of Japan, a leading global power, and Nigeria, a vastly underachieving African country, might sound far-fetched, the effort is rewarding, as shown in this article, for its implications for public policy formulation and implementation. This paper attempts a comparison of the evolution and implementation of policies relating to the development of ports, the mercantile marine and port industries in both countries. Focusing on the roles of the government and the private sector, it locates the discussion in a wider, global comparative context. The prospects and challenges of regional development through the agency of the maritime sector in both Nigeria and Japan are considered in the light of such concepts as 'maritime industrial development areas (MIDAs)' and 'developer ports'. Pertinent lessons in comparative history and public policy analysis are highlighted in the paper, which has benefited from primary research in both countries.

Ship detention prediction using anomaly detection in port state control: model and explanation

<abstract><p>Maritime transport plays an important role in global supply chain. To guarantee maritime safety, protect the marine environment, and enhance the living and working conditions of the seafarers, international codes and conventions are developed and implemented. Port state control (PSC) is a critical maritime policy to ensure that ships comply with the related regulations by selecting and inspecting foreign visiting ships visiting a national port. As the major inspection result, ship detention, which is an intervention action taken by the port state, is dependent on both deficiency/deficiencies (i.e., noncompliance) detected and the judgement of the inspector. This study aims to predict ship detention based on the number of deficiencies identified under each deficiency code and explore how each of them influences the detention decision. We innovatively view ship detention as a type of anomaly, which refers to data points that are few and different from the majority, and develop an isolation forest (iForest) model, which is an unsupervised anomaly detection model, for detention prediction. Then, techniques in explainable artificial intelligence are used to present the contribution of each deficiency code on detention. Numerical experiments using inspection records at the Hong Kong port are conducted to validate model performance and generate policy insights.</p></abstract>

Professional training as a component of state border maritime policy

Professional training as a component of state border maritime policy

The Initial 40 Years of the EC Maritime Policy, Part I: 1957-1997: Is EU-27 Maritime Industry “Fit for 55”?

We showed the 6 European nations, in 1957, (on the initiative of France & W. Germany), to form European Community-EC. This was the vision of Robert Schuman, a spiritual child of Jean Monnet. France put the 3 claims of its Revolution (1789): Liberty-Fraternity-Equality... But why EC-6 failed to form a Common Shipping/Maritime Policy for 28 whole years (till 1985)? Eight facts compelled Commission to design a CSP/CMP, taking 8 years (1973-1981). Our concern today is for EU-27’s future, given that UK exited and Poland may too… A war over Ukraine...? We presented the factors uniting the member-states, and those dividing them. Solidarity and equal wages & salaries remain 2 un-uncaught dreams. The threats now: from 22m of immigrants, the falling apart environment, the energy crisis and the dependence on Russian natural gas, among 5.5m dead from COVID-19, are the 5 major future problems for EU-27. We presented analytically, and with a critical approach, the 4 steps that EU-15 took for a common shipping/maritime policy (1985-1996). The 1st step produced 8 regulations (EC-10) concerning: cargo reservation, maritime safety, ports and cabotage. The 2nd (EC-12) drafted the regulations 4055-4058. The 3rd created the “positive measures” (EC-12). We presented the reaction of the “Hellenic Chamber of Shipping” (1989) to them. The 4th formed Commission’s “strategy”…which…failed to make EU-15 fleet more competitive & boost the employment of the EC-12 seamen! The comments of ECSA—(European Community Shipowners’ Association) also presented concerning “the Strategy”. Last, but not least, and more recent, was that EU-27 maritime industry has to become fit for 55% less carbon emissions by 2030, since 2008, which sounds impossible, as nobody paid particular attention either in COP26, or in MEPC 77 (2021)!

Russia’s Maritime Doctrine as a Prerequisite for the Spread of Aggression in the World Ocean

On July 31, 2022, the first Russian strategic planning document after the full-scale invasion of Ukraine was published – the new Maritime Doctrine of the Russian Federation. The purpose of this article is to analyze the Maritime Doctrine in the context of the priorities of the national maritime policy and the possible spread of the Russian aggression in various areas of the World Ocean, as well as a study of expert opinions regarding the new Doctrine. The author used the following scientific methods: analysis, synthesis, problematization, systematization, and specification. As a result of the conducted research the author of the article made a conclusion that the actual purpose of the Doctrine is the militarization of the World Ocean and the Caspian Sea in Russian interests. Russia plans to significantly strengthen its Navy and other military units related to maritime activities, in particular by increasing the number of warships and establishing a new system of the logistic bases in foreign countries of various regions of the world. The Russian Federation intends to control the naval activities of foreign states in the Northern Sea Route, and declares its readiness to use military force in international straits and international sea routes. In the Doctrine Russia recognized the primacy of national law over international law and removed the provision on the international status of the Kerch Strait from national legislation. Considering the above, the new Maritime Doctrine of the Russian Federation is undoubtedly a prerequisite for the spread of the Russian aggression in the World Ocean and a threat to global security.

EU Integrated Maritime Policy and Multilevel Governance

EU Integrated Maritime Policy and Multilevel Governance

Ukrainian Maritime Policy: Stranded in a Transit

Some aspects of the formation and realization of the modern maritime policy of Ukraine have been defined in the article. Its legal basis has been considered, its changes and updates have been monitored. The possibility and the ability to develop the documents of long-term planning in the maritime industry have been noted. At the same time, the belatedness and the lack of actual mechanisms for ensuring the execution of their norms lead to a stagnation of systemic reforms and a comprehensive update of public administration of the sphere. The attention is focused on the importance of a systematic approach to the transformation of legislative and law enforcement practices in the sphere of maritime and port activities in Ukraine, ensuring stability and continuity in their administration. The positive and negative practices in the exercise of powers by some subjects of realization of the maritime and port policy of Ukraine have been described. The pernicious practice of distance and situational intervention of a state in solving problems of the maritime and port industries as a strategic component of its political, social, and economic stability has been emphasized. Author suggest that introduction of modern methodology, such as maritime spatial planning may have positive impact on the effectiveness of Ukrainian maritime policy. When considering the development of the coastal regions as one of the directions of the maritime policy of Ukraine, it has been noted the advantages of creating and functioning the free economic zones in them. The characteristic of the experience of creation and work, as well as the specifics of such forms of trade facilitation (the preferential legal and financially-economic regimes, the presence of a particular specialization of entrepreneurial and investment activities, etc.), shows the economic expediency of granting such status to the port cities and the coastal regions. It has been noted that the free economic zones today are an active means of state policy, capable equally of reanimating depressed territory and giving an additional impetus to the regional points of growth.

Realizing the City of Surabaya as a World Maritime Fulcrum Economic Power in Indonesia

Since the 17th century, Surabaya has been used by the Dutch as a basis for economic development, especially in the eastern part of Indonesia. Surabaya's position is strategic in building the Indonesian economy to date. The world maritime Fulcrum as the current government's vision is very important to consider Surabaya as the center of economic gravity. The qualitative method of literature study is used in this paper. The discussion covers the geographical location of Surabaya which is very strategic which is in the middle of the territory of Indonesia as an archipelagic country. Surabaya is also the area of the largest strength of the Indonesian Navy fleet. Surabaya is currently the capital city of East Java Province which nationally as the second largest contributor to state revenue, all fields have high progress including the fields of education, tourism, industry. As a conclusion and as a novelty of this paper, Surabaya as an economic gateway, especially eastern Indonesia, is very worthy of being the center of Indonesia's economic power in the vision of the World Maritime Fulcrum. As a recommendation, the government needs to immediately make integrated policies that involve related parties. Keywords: Surabaya, Indonesian Maritime Policy, Indonesian Maritime Strategy, Sea Power, World Maritime Fulcrum DOI: 10.7176/JESD/12-24-01 Publication date: December 31 st 2021

The Development of Major Seaports in the Context of National Maritime Policy. The Case Study of Poland

State authorities may influence the development of seaports by employing the tools of national maritime policy. On the one hand, seaports contribute to the socioeconomic development of coastal regions; on the other, they have a significant impact on foreign trade turnover. The aim of this study is to identify the major factors that have influenced the development of Poland’s seaports in the context of the country’s maritime policy. The paper examines and explains the development and transitions of major Polish seaports such as Gdansk, Gdynia, Szczecin, and Swinoujcie. In order to identify the state of the port economy the authors used public statistics and data analysis. Furthermore, they created a model of comanagement of major seaports and presented a qualitative and quantitative comparison of the development of major seaports from 2005 to 2019. It was discovered that port turnover increased, but in various ways in each of the analysed ports. The government of Poland, acting in a dual role as the coordinator of national maritime policy and the majority owner of seaports, was the most powerful decision-maker in the port economy. However initiatives to implement sustainable principles in seaports have gradually emerged through bottom-up activities of port authorities supported by local and regional authorities.