Maritime Domain Awareness Research Articles

Challenges to the Capacity-Building of Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA) in East Asia: What Is at Stake?

East Asian countries, including Northeast Asian countries such as China, Japan and Korea, and Southeast Asian countries such as the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore, have endeavored to enhance their maritime domain awareness (MDA) capabilities at either the state or regional level to mitigate, prevent or respond to maritime threats. Vibrant, dynamic East Asia comprises a huge diversity of cultures, religions, political systems, and security regimes, and their perceptions of and approaches to MDA are significantly varied. The regional states need to recognize the importance and value of MDA in ensuring maritime safety and security and to allocate more resources to build up their MDA capacities accordingly. In addition, closer collaboration between Northeast and Southeast Asian countries is required.

Maritime security and blue economy development in Nigeria: A structural equation model

The Nigerian Niger Delta region has been described as the epicenter of piracy and kidnapping for ransom of seafarers and other maritime crimes especially in the Gulf of Guinea region. This paper aimed to evaluate Maritime Security and Blue Economy development in Nigeria using structural equation model. The study adopted a quantitative research methodology and expost facto research design. A 33year (1990 - 2022) time series secondary data were sourced from International Maritime Bureau (IMB), Nigerian Ports Authority annual reports, CBN statistical bulletin, NOSDRA, and NPA annual statistics. The data obtained were transformed, cleaned, and subjected to Confirmatory factor analysis, measurement model and Structural equation modelling using AMOS (V23). From the structural equations analysis, the specified models met the minimum/necessary conditions (Df => 0) for model identification. The findings of the study revealed that 56 % of maritime security threats in Nigeria waters can be predicted by the number of crewmen kidnapped for ransom, 55 % by pirates’ attacks and 92 % by crude oil theft in Nigerian waters. Similarly, the results revealed that maritime security threats (MST) have a significant effect on blue economy development in Nigeria. Imperatively, adequate maritime security measures stimulate confidence among local and international stakeholders, attracting investments, encouraging trade partnerships, and enhancing the country’s position as a reliable maritime hub. Therefore, the study recommended that the Nigerian government should prioritise cooperation and collaborations with other regional navies to ensure adequate maritime domain awareness and security interdiction within her exclusive economic zone as provided by the Yaoundé code of conduct security architecture.

Addressing maritime security challenges through maritime domain awareness: a study of the role of the Information Fusion Centre-Indian Ocean Region

ABSTRACT In recent years, many non-traditional maritime safety and security threats viz. piracy, armed robberies at sea, maritime terrorism, human trafficking, drugs trafficking, illicit trafficking in wildlife, illegal deals in weapons, IUU fishing, dilapidation of ocean health and illegal exploitation of sea resources, etc. have emerged as real and serious challenges not only to the commercial shipping but also to the national security. A comprehensive response from the worldwide seafaring community is the need of the hour to tackle these maritime threats, both natural and man-made. India’s initiative of establishing the Information Fusion Centre-Indian Ocean Region (IFC-IOR) in the year 2018 can be regarded as a significant step in dealing with the variety of maritime security challenges. Jointly managed and run by the Indian Navy and Coast Guard, the IFC-IOR fulfils the purpose of creating Maritime Domain Awareness on the issues pertaining to maritime safety and security. Protecting maritime interests and augmenting security in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) is indispensable for maintaining free navigation and overflight, unconstrained commerce and a free, open and UNCLOS-based regime in the IOR.

Faster R–CNN, RetinaNet and Single Shot Detector in different ResNet backbones for marine vessel detection using cross polarization C-band SAR imagery

Detection of marine vessels plays an important role in monitoring, managing and securing seas and oceans, and forms the foundation of Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA). Although marine vessel detection has remained an active area of research for many years, unlike other object detectors, techniques of detection have been left far behind and lack systematic robustness. Hence, this study compared the performance of Faster R–CNN, RetinaNet and Single Shot Detector (SSD) across different epochs and complexities of ResNet architectures using Sentinel-1 VH polarization in one of the busiest ports in the Philippines. In particular, the models were created from the training samples dataset derived from Sentinel-1 VH imagery captured on January 12, 2024 in ResNet-34, -50, and −101 backbones, and 20 and 100 epochs. In this study, a total of 18 different object detector models were created for the comparative analysis. The models were tested with respect to different dates but having the same imagery type to determine their applicability across other base maps. Faster R–CNN with the highest F1 score of 0.85 outperformed RetinaNet with a highest F1 score of 0.74 and SSD with the highest F1 score of 0.38. The fastest model created was SSD, with an average speed of 9 to 44 minutes, followed by RetinaNet with an average speed of 8 to 58 minutes; the slowest is Faster R–CNN with an average speed of 25 minutes to 1 hour and 3 minutes. The use of Sentinel-1 VH imagery for marine vessel detection is a viable alternative, but the choice of object detectors should be carefully considered. The presence of geospatial software with advance deep learning tools improves remote sensing applications and allows non-programmers to optimize their competence. This study highlights the potential utilization of other imagery with higher spatial resolution, testing of other deep learning algorithms, finetuning of parameters, and utilization of higher computing infrastructure. The findings of this study can be applied in other areas for MDA, particularly in regions where advanced remote sensing applications have yet to be extensively explored.

The implications of the Indo-Pacific Partnership for Maritime Domain Awareness (IPMDA) in the South China Sea: A Chinese perspective

The emergence of China as a major power and its adjustment of foreign policy have raised concerns in the U.S. The Quad, led by the U.S., aims to counterbalance China’s growing influence in East and Southeast Asia, and the Indo-Pacific Maritime Domain Awareness (IPMDA) acts as an important component of its strategy. However, this article notes that the endeavor faces significant challenges, including legal and geopolitical risks, as well as economic and technical limitations. Intelligence-gathering activities may infringe upon the sovereign rights and jurisdiction of coastal states, especially within disputed maritime areas. Cooperative enforcement under IPMDA can raise legal questions concerning the transfer of maritime jurisdiction under UNCLOS to non-contracting parties. China perceives the IPMDA initiative as a threat posed by the Quad. The Chinese government is concerned that it could spark renewed criticism of its fishing industry and strain diplomatic ties with neighboring countries. China’s response could entail the establishment of alternative mechanisms and increased transparency in maritime activities. Against the backdrop of intensifying competition between the U.S. and China and ongoing disputes in the South China Sea, the IPMDA could exacerbate existing tensions in the SCS area. The exclusivity of the IPMDA mechanism may not serve the best interests of maritime security and prosperity in the Asia-Pacific region. In this context, China is encouraged to play a more constructive role in defusing tensions.

Distributed satellite system autonomous orbital control with recursive filtering

In this article, we propose a recursive orbital elements filter for autonomous control of Distributed Satellite Systems (DSS) that significantly reduces the variance of relative orbital elements between the observed and the desired satellite orbits. Leveraging satellite kinematics and control inputs data, combined with a model of relative dynamics, the filter provides smooth and continuous orbital control, while minimizing propellant consumption. In conjunction with Precise Point Positioning (PPP) navigation, the proposed filter enables onboard continuous low-thrust control compatible with high-performance electric propulsion. We also propose a restricted transverse/normal control law that simplifies the thruster's configurations and/or attitude manoeuvres required for propulsion pointing. The applicability and validity of our proposed techniques are verified by numerical simulations with two case studies: a constellation for Differential Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (DInSAR) for global infrastructure monitoring; and a maritime domain awareness mission based on along-track interferometric synthetic aperture radar which requires single-pass interferometry for responsive ship traffic surveillance, and the coverage of a very large maritime zone with high revisit rates.

<span>III. Bridging the maritime domain awareness gap: The role of new technologies in promoting equitable surveillance capabilities to enact environmental obligations under the law of the sea</span>

<span>III. Bridging the maritime domain awareness gap: The role of new technologies in promoting equitable surveillance capabilities to enact environmental obligations under the law of the sea</span>

Technology and maritime security in Africa: Opportunities and challenges in Gulf of Guinea

Maritime security threats undermine safety and security at sea and, in turn, coastal states’ efforts to harness the resources in their maritime domain. This assertion is true for coastal states and Small Island Developing States (SIDS) on the African continent, where limited maritime enforcement capabilities have increased security threats at sea, such as illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing, piracy and armed robbery at sea, toxic waste dumping and other illicit activities. African navies and their foreign partners are taking advantage of the opportunities that technology provides to improve safety and security. Technology has led to the identification of criminals at sea, their capture and prosecution, making it crucial in enhancing maritime security. As such, the merits of its use for maritime security are undeniable. However, using technology comes with challenges that need to be considered. With this in mind, our research makes an original contribution by exploring the opportunities for using technology to advance maritime safety and security in Africa, successes and challenges with an emphasis on the Gulf of Guinea region. Drawing from questionnaire data from maritime law enforcement personnel, agencies supporting the implementation of the Yaoundé Code of Conduct (2013), and a review of relevant literature and policy documents, we contend that technology has significantly improved maritime domain awareness and the effective implementation of maritime safety and security in the Gulf of Guinea. However, addressing existing limitations and enhancing human capacity is imperative to sustain this progress.

MARITIME DOMAIN AWARENESS IN SOUTH AFRICA: A MULTISOURCE APPROACH USING REMOTE SENSING AND AIS DATA

Abstract. Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA) is a key factor in ensuring the security, safety, economy, and environment of the maritime domain. Due to the large size of the EEZ, vessel tracking is essential for security, economy, tourism, and safety. However, the failure of one of the two Copernicus Sentinel-1 satellites has posed a significant challenge, hindering the effectiveness of monitoring dark targets. To address this limitation, this study presents the integration of multiple data sources, allowing the mapping of both vessels and dark targets while providing comprehensive analytics to inform decision makers and improve South Africa’s maritime domain awareness efforts. The results demonstrated the potential of combining SAR, optical and AIS data to effectively monitor and manage vessel activities in the South African EEZ. Using these diverse data sources, decision makers can gain real-time insights into maritime traffic, identify potential risks or illicit activities, and make informed decisions to protect national interests and promote sustainable practises within the maritime domain.

Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA) and Archives: the Role of Archives in Sovereignty

In the pursuit of enhancing awareness and preparedness for territorial waters, Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA) is closely associated with the role of archives in upholding state sovereignty. Archives function as documentation of events and activities within an area, serving as tangible evidence of control over that region. This paper explores the connection between MDA and archives in the context of sovereignty, posing a central question: How does the role of archives contribute to maintaining sovereignty within the MDA framework? Utilizing qualitative research methods and a literature study, the paper delves into the actors responsible for creating agency, the categories, and the functions of archives in upholding sovereignty within the MDA concept. Primary sources include literature on MDA and regulations governing archives, with data analysis conducted through the stages of a literature study. The MDA concept operates as a unified system involving various actors in a given area, with information at its core – information preserved in archives. Archives within the MDA concept emerge as an alternative means of identifying actors and documenting proof of state territorial sovereignty. In the maritime field, at least 13 agencies or actors contribute to the production of archives. These accumulated archives are considered treasures, aligning with the provisions of Law Number 43 of 2009 regarding archives, labeled as guarded records. The triad of MDA, archives, and sovereignty establishes a significant link in safeguarding Indonesia's territorial integrity. MDA archives play dual roles in sovereignty: facilitating effective occupation and soft diplomacy. They serve as tangible evidence of ownership, control, and management of maritime areas, reaffirming Indonesia's territorial sovereignty.

Maritime Security: Lost in Translation? Developing a Common Lexicon to Enhance Data Integrity and Global Maritime Domain Awareness

With the proliferation of post-Cold War globalisation, the international community began to appreciate the immense importance of maritime security. In recent decades, numerous national, regional, and global information sharing centres have been established with an aim to provide relevant stakeholders with an assessment of the risks and threats within the maritime domain. Unfortunately, international organisations failed to simultaneously emphasise the importance of standardised terminology and definitions for use in the global maritime security context. Instead of using other standardised areas of the maritime industry such as maritime safety as a guide, dozens of government agencies, regional reporting centres, private maritime security companies, and information sharing/fusion centres have now been established. Each of these uses its own unique categories, terminology, and definitions to measure and catalogue regional and global incidents of violent maritime crime. In this article, that includes acts of piracy and armed robbery against ships. In some cases, political and economic bias has played a significant role in how maritime security incident data is officially recorded and presented to the public. This lack of data cohesion has resulted in significant confusion and distrust amongst the shipping industry and policymakers. It has also created an uncertain environment for seafarers, who largely depend on their employers and regulators to keep them safe and secure at sea. The research includes an analysis of several sets of qualitative and quantitative data from prominent agencies and reporting centres. Case studies are also presented to illustrate why harmonised terminology, definitions, and incident reporting protocols are integral to achieving global maritime domain awareness. The numerous challenges to achieving this goal are then explored and proposed solutions are presented. The paper concludes by proposing a lexicon for incidents of violent maritime crime, as a first step in creating a common lexicon for global maritime security. As stated in earlier issues, this journal does not seek to promote a common definition of maritime security, but a common lexicon is of more practical use. This article is based on a dissertation completed as part of the master’s degree in Maritime Security at Coventry University in 2022.

Indonesia's Marine Economic Potential As A Maritime Country

This nation has economic potential that is no less flashy and dazzling in terms of natural resources and the environment. The main purpose of this article is to emphasise the importance of Indonesia's marine economic potential as a maritime country in achieving Indonesia's prosperity and glory as a maritime country. Fisheries, marine tourism, marine transportation, offshore energy and mineral resources, marine industry, marine buildings, and marine services are all goals for the marine economic spectrum. This marine resource's potential economic value is estimated to be at least $8.22 trillion per year. This article was written using qualitative and descriptive literature studies. A literature review was used as the research method to analyse the journal. Reviewing related libraries is what a literature review entails. (Review of related literature/review of literature) The findings indicate that the Indonesian government already has a policy in place for Indonesia's marine strategy, which refers to Indonesia's Development Vision, which is contained in Law Number 17 of 2007 concerning the National Long-Term Development Plan 2005-2025 and Law Number 32 of 2014 concerning Marine. This policy is reflected in a number of concepts, including Blue Economy, Maritime Domain Awareness, World Maritime Axis, and Nusantara Insight. To realise Indonesia as an independent, advanced, and strong archipelagic country based on national interests, this great potential must be managed and utilised holistically, integrated thematically, and distributed spatially proportionally through an integrated development planning process supported by harmonious spatial planning and the implementation of sustainable development that can run in harmony.

LFLD-CLbased NET: A Curriculum-Learning-Based Deep Learning Network with Leap-Forward-Learning-Decay for Ship Detection

Ship detection in the maritime domain awareness field has seen a significant shift towards deep-learning-based techniques as the mainstream approach. However, most existing deep-learning-based ship detection models adopt a random sampling strategy for training data, neglecting the complexity differences among samples and the learning progress of the model, which hinders training efficiency, robustness, and generalization ability. To address this issue, we propose a ship detection model called the Leap-Forward-Learning-Decay and Curriculum Learning-based Network (LFLD-CLbased NET). This model incorporates innovative strategies as Leap-Forward-Learning-Decay and curriculum learning to enhance its ship detection capabilities. The LFLD-CLbased NET is composed of ResNet as the feature extraction unit, combined with a difficulty generator and a difficulty scheduler. The difficulty generator in LFLD-CLbased NET effectively expands data samples based on real ocean scenarios, and the difficulty scheduler constructs corresponding curriculum training data, enabling the model to be trained in an orderly manner from easy to difficult. The Leap-Forward-Learning-Decay strategy, which allows for flexible adjustment of the learning rate during curriculum training, is proposed for enhancing training efficiency. Our experimental findings demonstrate that our model achieved a detection accuracy of 86.635%, approximately 10% higher than other deep-learning-based ship detection models. In addition, we conducted extensive supplementary experiments to evaluate the effectiveness of the learning rate adjustment strategy and curriculum training in ship detection tasks. Furthermore, we conducted exploratory experiments on different modules to compare performance differences under varying parameter configurations.

Improving Maritime Domain Awareness in Brazil through Computer Vision Technology

This article discusses the Brazilian maritime authority’s efforts to monitor and control vessels in specific maritime areas using data from the naval traffic control system. Anomalies in vessel locations can signal security threats or illegal activities, such as drug trafficking and illegal fishing. A reliable Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA) is necessary to reduce such occurrences. This study proposes a data-driven framework, CV-MDA, which uses computer vision to enhance MDA. The approach integrates vessel records and camera images to create an annotated dataset for a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) model. This solution supports detecting, classifying, and identifying small vessels without trackers or that have deliberately shut down their tracking systems in order to engage in illegal activities. Improving MDA could enhance maritime security, including identifying warships invading territorial waters and preventing illegal activities.

Smart Terminal System of Systems’ Cyber Threat Impact Evaluation

Systems of system-level thinking is required when the purpose is to develop a coherent understanding of the ecosystem where every user and system requirements are divided into specific parts. The smarter project, as a part of the Sea4value program of DIMECC, aims to develop harbor operations, including passenger and cargo transportation, in a way that port processes will improve, emissions will decrease, and overall security will enhance in smart ports. This paper describes cyber-attack impacts against the Smart terminal system of systems in the cyber realm by utilizing the MITRE ATTACK® framework to map the objectives of threat actors. The Smart Terminal system environment includes ICT, ICS networks and components, communication systems, and port service systems. Internal and external threat sources or actors are hard to divide exactly because of the diversity of the threats. Hybrid threats challenge maritime domain awareness globally. The cyber threat impacts on IT and OT environments are connected to each other because of the use of internal and external networks that impact each other by combining vulnerabilities and threats. Well-working port and terminal operations require not only protected operational systems or sensor systems, but human errors must also be minimized. Objectives of threat actors are presented, categorized, and listed. Threat scenarios illustrate that cyber threats and risks are mainly similar in the maritime global-linked port community and basic hinterland trade. The networked supply chain of the business causes evolving and combined threat scenarios. European and international standards, regulations, policies, recommendations, and, e.g., guidelines by the IMO, set new cyber-threat requirements for port and terminal services and facilities. Therefore, overall security must be considered when cyber-security is the development area. Information exchange in an understandable form is essential for maintaining business continuity. Threat information has to be transferred among stakeholders as well as cyber security codes have to be followed in the port operations of partners that are involved, for example, in operational and system-level actions. Digitalization in smart ports and terminals enhances the capacity to handle cargo and passengers more efficiently, but cyber threats evolve.

New Paradigm of Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA) As an Effort ToCombat Sea Piracy

New Paradigm of Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA) As an Effort ToCombat Sea Piracy

A Distributed Satellite System for Multibaseline AT-InSAR: Constellation of Formations for Maritime Domain Awareness Using Autonomous Orbit Control

Space-based Earth Observation (EO) systems have undergone a continuous evolution in the twenty-first century. With the help of space-based Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA), specially Automatic Identification Systems (AIS), their applicability across the world’s waterways, among others, has grown substantially. This research work explores the potential applicability of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) and Distributed Satellite Systems (DSS) for the MDA operation. A robust multi-baseline Along-Track Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (AT-InSAR) Formation Flying concept is proposed to combine several along-track baseline observations effectively for single-pass interferometry. Simulation results are presented to support the feasibility of implementing this acquisition mode with autonomous orbit control, using low-thrust actuation suitable for electric propulsion. To improve repeatability, a constellation of this formation concept is also proposed to combine the benefits of the DSS. An MDA application is considered as a hypothetical mission to be solved by this combined approach.

Indo-Pacific reluctance and the gulf: an examination of maritime domain awareness as an influence shaping regional maritime security efforts

ABSTRACT Maritime security, while a challenge for littoral states in the Gulf region, has not evolved to reflect global maritime trends. The maritime challenges in the Gulf region point out the necessity of reforming approaches to maritime security and investing in a greater understanding of how the global commons will define the health of individual Gulf states. This paper examines how Gulf states, despite enjoying modern maritime forces, remain fixated on traditional mechanisms for addressing maritime threats. Using a Maritime Domain Awareness framework for analysis, this paper argues that Gulf states lag in information sharing processes tied to maritime security operations that have become a common approach in the Indo-Pacific. Without greater investment by Gulf maritime services into the information sharing arrangements, the Gulf becomes more vulnerable.

Strategic Role of the Defense Industry in Answering the Needs of KRI Capability C4ISR to Achieve Maritime Security in Indonesian National Jurisdictions

The currently growing and complex maritime security threat is marked by the Coronavirus outbreak, which is thought to spread quickly. This virus threat can mean Hybrid Warfare but can also mean proxy where this type of threat can be exploited or used by parties who intend to invest their interests in Indonesia. This threat must be a concern of all countries, and cooperation at sea between countries is needed to overcome it. The Indonesian Navy sees the importance of increasing capabilities in the field of utilizing C4ISR technology (Command, Control, Computer, Communication, Intelligence, Surveillance, And Recognition) and how to integrate it into a single unit that can operate optimally within the framework of maritime defense and security of the unitary state of the Republic of Indonesia. Furthermore, cooperation with the Navy and all naval stakeholders is also needed to build collaboration in realizing maritime domain awareness (MDA) in the national region. The importance of Indonesia as a barometer of regional maritime security, namely; as a measure of the independence of Indonesia's ability to face naval security threats, measuring patterns, methods, and technology of Indonesia's marine security apparatus in dealing with threats, as well as predicting trends in maritime security threats that occur. As the main component of national defense, the Navy is required to carry out capacity building in marine protection and security, So that the defense i

Some methods for addressing errors in static AIS data records

The Automatic Identification System (AIS) provides essential services in support of maritime domain awareness. Accurate AIS values for hull dimension and type are often critical for safe and efficient management of ship traffic, and for development of new artificial intelligence maritime algorithms. AIS variables are subject to faults from multiple sources, ranging from bad weather to human error. New heuristic methods for correcting ship draft, beam, and class were developed and evaluated, using AIS data in the vicinity of large Florida ports as a test bed. Novel low order polynomials for 8 broad functional vessel classes yielded predicted values for draft and beam as functions of vessel length. The majority of relative differences between predicted and reported values were <0.1. A logistic regression (LR) multiclass classification scheme using the residuals from these polynomial predictions generally showed good agreement between estimated and reported vessel class. The LR scheme demonstrated skill in verifying AIS-transmitted classification, detecting incorrectly classified vessels, and flagging those with incorrect draft or operating near an extreme draft. A diagnostic of reports whose classification had very low and very high confidence suggested directions for further improvement of the algorithm. A new hierarchy for processed AIS data is proposed.