Maritime Community Research Articles

Oil Spills in Maritime Transport: Call for Action

Maritime transport plays a vital role in the economic growth and global competitiveness of the regions that it serves. It offers an enormous potential for sustainable and environmentally friendly transport. The international maritime community, however, is faced with a major challenge: to protect the marine environment from pollution related to oil spills. A parallelism between resolutions adopted by national and international bodies and the oil spill incidents that triggered them is presented. The focus is on reviewing records of maritime casualties associated with massive environmental pollution. It is an attempt to shed light on how these incidents affect the formulation and implementation of the global marine environment protection policy as well as the role of the International Maritime Organization in dealing with these problems.

Oil Spills in Maritime Transport

Maritime transport plays a vital role in the economic growth and global competitiveness of the regions that it serves. It offers an enormous potential for sustainable and environmentally friendly transport. The international maritime community, however, is faced with a major challenge: to protect the marine environment from pollution related to oil spills. A parallelism between resolutions adopted by national and international bodies and the oil spill incidents that triggered them is presented. The focus is on reviewing records of maritime casualties associated with massive environmental pollution. It is an attempt to shed light on how these incidents affect the formulation and implementation of the global marine environment protection policy as well as the role of the International Maritime Organization in dealing with these problems.

Maritime Security, Terrorism, and the "New Economy"

This paper describes how no economy—“new or otherwise—can flourish in an insecure or unstable strategic environment. “Security,” as Joseph Nye said “is like oxygen—you tend not to notice it until you begin to lose it, but once that occurs there is nothing else that you will think about.” Today, the structure and values of human society and the delicately balanced ecosystem upon which they depend for survival are experiencing unprecedented change. The magnitude and tempo of that change, combined with growing interdependence among growing populations, suggest that every citizen of the “global village” has a vital interest in contemporary security strategies. Security is certainly an issue of immediate and pressing importance to those with a stake in the peaceful use of the global ocean. In changing times it is prudent to revisit the established doctrine, dogma, and assumptions. This paper describes how, in the case of contemporary maritime security there are four questions that warrant asking. First, which factors are truly new, and which are either evolving or immutable? Second, what does the concept of “security” really mean? Third, what are the implications of the answers to the preceding questions for the global maritime community? Finally, what conclusions can be drawn upon as guides for future policy and practice? This paper attempts to answer these four questions.

Maritime Security – The Need for a Global Agreement

This note reviews US maritime security measures, outlines work carried out by international organisations and then frames maritime security within the wider context of maritime trade. Finally, it suggests the development of a Global Agreement linking security and other maritime trade-related issues. The initiative for such an agreement should be undertaken by the EU only if current International Maritime Organisation (IMO) efforts fail to produce a maritime security framework with binding requirements and after the wider impact of US security measures has been properly assessed (Flynn, 2002). The September 11 events have revealed the soft underbelly of globalisation. The liberalisation of markets and the resulting facilitation of trade and travel allow terrorists to do their worst. Existing border-management architectures provide no guarantees that terrorists can be prevented from reaching their targets. Furthermore, market pressures are now forcing transport companies to embrace higher standards and adopt technologies and processes that can make border control less relevant. Preoccupation with the urgency of domestic security issues has encouraged the US to develop security standards and urge the rest of the world to adopt their approach or to engage in direct negotiations with them. The US approach is two-fold: it is based on the early detection and interception of terrorists (by moving control away from borders to points-of-origin) who seek to exploit or target the international transport networks coupled with cooperation on data gathering and information sharing. These two aspects have shaped US initiatives and legislations such as the Container Security Initiative (CSI) (US Customs 2002), the ‘Port and Maritime Security Act of 2001’ and the ‘Maritime Transportation Antiterrorism Act of 2002’. These two legislative Acts and the CSI initiative aim at enhancing security, while at the same time furthering US strategic interests in security-related trade issues and strengthening the US maritime industry's position in order to make it more competitive (Lloyd's List, February 2002). There is a need to study the wider implications of US maritime security initiatives and assess US intentions within the context of international maritime trade. US-driven maritime security initiatives and the current fragmentation of efforts of international organisations such as IMO, World Customs Organisation, International Labour Organisation, and International Standards Organisation, if are not checked by the international maritime community (through a global agreement), may ultimately enable the US to impose its requirements on the rest of the world and affect the operations of international shipping. There is no doubt that current efforts to secure new maritime security consensus through the IMO is a step in the right direction. The amended Chapter XI of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) Convention and the Ship and Port Facility Security Code (ISPS Code) although fundamental to a global security do not cover containers. However, given the multiplicity of actors involved, existing arrangements may not guarantee the required coordination in particular with the WCO. Furthermore, it is not certain that input from the various organisations with varying degrees of expertise will dovetail with IMO work already underway. In order to deal with the consequences and pitfalls of the US initiatives and cope with the fragmentation of international efforts, the development of a Global Agreement should be considered to weld all the stakeholders in a legally binding international framework. A Global Agreement may prove to be a much more cost-effective way of enhancing maritime security globally and restraining US ‘hegemonic’ ambitions and unilateralism in maritime trade.

:Tides in the Affairs of Men: The Social History of Elizabethan Seamen, 1580-1603

Preface Training and Manning the Maritime Community Authority, Discipline, and the Maritime Social Order Maritime Subculture, Labor Relations, and the Role of Custom Victualling, Morbidity, Mortality, and Health Care Life Ashore Conclusion Bibliography

The Role of Participation in the European Demonstration Projects in ICZM

A study on the role of participation in integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) was undertaken as part of the European Demonstration Programme in Integrated Coastal Zone Management. The study recommends that projects adopt the following criteria: a clear process, representativeness, openness, relevant techniques, sufficient resources, and shared learning. Participation procedures should be integrated with the technical process and mechanisms clearly related to the style and purpose of the project. A main conclusion is that although participation is important, it is not a panacea. While many of the risks involved may be common to consensus building, the study highlights those peculiar to coastal management, such as the historic autonomy of many ports, the fragmented nature of the tourism industry, and suspicion of experts among the maritime community. Finally, it is suggested that ICZM may be considered a suitable paradigm for sustainable development generally.

Best Practices on Performing a Tactical Port Security Risk Assessment Using Risk-Based Decision-Making1

ABSTRACT In the wake of September 11, 2001, Captains of the Port (COTPs) nationwide set into motion various security measures to protect potential targets (referred to as an “asset” throughout this paper) located in, on or near navigable waterways. However, the way in which these measures were carried out and the degree to which they were enforced were vastly different from port to port and raised much speculation in the U.S. maritime community over what the security landscape of the future would look like. Over one year later, maritime security practices remain a widely debated issue and one that will continue to challenge COTPs to answer the constantly looming questions of, “what is an adequate level of security for my port?,” “what level of security can I maintain at predefined Maritime Security (MARSEC) Conditions?” (USCG, 2002) and “how can I defend my assertions?” It is widely agreed in maritime security circles that concepts such as MARSEC Conditions and Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA) (USCG, 2002) are essential components of the port security posture of the 21st century, but most of this community will concede that they do not have a clear cut strategy on how to bridge the gap between transforming these lofty concepts into clearly defined, tactically sound and implementable security solutions. The purpose of this paper is to describe such a bridge, or a port security risk assessment methodology if you will, that is based on factual data that is verified by Coast Guard personnel and that synthesizes security concepts and Risk-Based Decision-Making (RBDM) methodologies (USCG, 2001) into systematic assessment phases that have been developed and tested by U.S. Coast Guard Marine Safety Office (MSO) St. Louis, Missouri. Moreover, it describes how the analysis of the data gained from the assessment phases provided the COTP St. Louis with tangible and accurate data results that can now be used by Port Security Committees (PSCs) (USCG, 2002) as a foundation for tactical planning and the development of Port Security Plans (PSPs) (USCG, 2002). These PSPs meet the guidelines established in the U.S. Coast Guard's Navigation and Vessel Inspection Circular (NVIC) 9–02 entitled, “Guidelines for Port Security Committees, and Port Security Plans Required for U.S. Ports.” Once proven in broad applications, this tool can be consistently implemented by COTPs nationwide providing them with detailed port risk characterizations. Armed with this tactical analysis, COTPs can then accurately prioritize high-risk assets and maximize the use of PSC resources to stem potential terrorist threats or attacks.

A comparison between the international and US regimes regulating oil pollution liability and compensation

Abstract Despite its search for a universal oil spill liability and compensation regime, the maritime community continues to face the dichotomy between the US approach and that adopted by the rest of the world. Both regimes have a two-tier structure that is composed of a liability scheme and a fund scheme. However, the significant differences between the two regimes can be found in the liability limit of a responsible party and the scope of recoverable damages. This explains the reasons why the US took a unilateral approach instead of participating in the international one. In the short term, it seems that the current dual system will continue. In the long term, however, it would be desirable to establish a unified international regime which would enable all actors to direct their energies toward handling oil spills rather than grappling with unilateral legislation in individual jurisdictions of the world. Even before an establishment of a unified international regime, harmonization between the two regimes would not only be helpful for the ultimate unification, but also desirable for transactions of the industries concerned under the current dual system.

Displaying the sea and defining America

(2002). Displaying the sea and defining America. Journal for Maritime Research: Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 40-51.

Optimum Choice of Beacon in Maritime DGNSS Systems

Marine radiobeacons are widely used by the maritime community worldwide as an efficient means of broadcasting differential GPS data to users at sea. In Europe and North America, large numbers of these beacons now serve coastal regions, waterways, and some inland areas. Frequently there is overlapping coverage and a choice of stations. But users receive little guidance as to how to select the beacon that gives the highest quality service. Receivers that choose a beacon automatically generally select either the nearest station or the strongest signal. But the performance of the data-link is optimised by choosing the station received with the highest ratio of signal to either noise or interference. With Selective Availability set to zero, spatial dilution and time-to-alarm have become key factors. This paper compares four beacon selection strategies by means of a computer model based on well-established coverage analysis and system design techniques. We recommend a new ‘post-SA’ beacon selection method that chooses the nearest station that meets the time-to-alarm requirement. This strategy has been used to identify the ‘best beacon’ throughout the European Maritime Area, with stations operating in accordance with the new band-plan adopted last September. We also identify the alternate beacon to use if the preferred station should fail.

Australia s Oceans Policy and the Maritime Community

(1999). Australia s Oceans Policy and the Maritime Community. Maritime Studies: Vol. 1999, No. 108, pp. 10-17.

:Spain's Men of the Sea: Daily Life on the Indies Fleets in the Sixteenth Century

In the sixteenth century, Spain's control over its vast New World empire depended on the sailors and officers who manned the galleons and merchant vessels of its Atlantic fleets. In Spain's Men of the Sea, Pablo E. paints a stunning portrait of daily life aboard the ships of the Spanish Main. With a novelist's eye for both detail and drama, evokes the golden age of seafaring in this thoroughly researched and generously illustrated account. Spain's Men of the Sea begins in Seville, the gateway to the New World. One of Europe's most cosmopolitan cities, Seville attracted people and goods from around the world. From Seville, follows the Spanish fleets to the West Indies ports of San Juan de Ulda, Veracruz, Cartagena, Nombre de Dios, Portobelo, and Havana. He profiles the men and boys who went to sea-from the scions of seafaring dynasties and fugitives from justice to the orphans and destitute children apprenticed into service as cabin boys. Some signed on because of family tradition, more signed on because of the lure of New World treasure or simply to obtain free passage to the Americas. Most sailors were poorly paid, but the more enterprising among them supplemented their meager wages by small-scale trade or smuggling. also describes relations among the ship owners, officers, and crews, and traces the intervention of the Spanish government in disputes over pay and cases of insubordination and mistreatment. paints a bleak picture of life at sea and its physical and mental effect on seamen and passengers alike. The seafaring life was defined by cramped quarters, abominable food, seasickness, vermin infestation, and disease. More frightening still was the threat of shipwreck and assault by corsairs and pirates that accompanied all sea voyages. Not surprisingly, most sailors were highly superstitious, and closes his vivid study with an exploration of their unorthodox religious beliefs, which combined Christian and pagan elements. A significant contribution to maritime history, Spain's Men of the Sea also succeeds as a compelling tale of everyday life and death in the maritime community. Perez-Mallaina writes well and has an engaging sense of humor. The work is richly illustrated, and the illustrations, including many color plates, are well chosen...This book should appeal to all aficionados of the romance of the sea as well as to specialists in Spanish and Latin American colonial history.-Benjamin Keen, author of A History of Latin America

Some Thoughts On Salvage Operations During Oil Spills1

ABSTRACT Recent casualties have caused response planners, spill managers, underwriters, and government authorities to closely examine the role of salvage operations in the successful resolution of actual or potential spill events. The integration of salvage operations with oil spill response operations remains somewhat ill defined in the post-OPA 90 NIIMS based ICS response system. The responses to the Buffalo 292 and Buffalo 286 oil spills demonstrated that a coordinated, well-conceived, and professionally executed salvage operation can be conducted within the ICS framework. A similar response management model was used during the successful emergency lightering of the grounded tankship Overseas Valdez. These operations spotlighted the efficacy of the maritime community's implementation of the Vessel Response Plan (VRP) requirements of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, the successful integration of salvage operations into the incident command system, and the benefits of prompt access to computerized damage stability and residual strength calculation programs.

Book Review: The Colony that Rose from the Sea: Norwegian Maritime Migration and Community in Brooklyn, 1850–1910

Book Review: The Colony that Rose from the Sea: Norwegian Maritime Migration and Community in Brooklyn, 1850–1910

The Colony That Rose from the Sea: Norwegian Maritime Migration and Community in Brooklyn, 1850-1910.

The Colony That Rose from the Sea: Norwegian Maritime Migration and Community in Brooklyn, 1850-1910.

Raster Data Centre: Electronic Chart Processing for the Hydrographic Service, RAN

During the past decade the maritime community has identified huge advantages in having electronic chart products available for navigation and allied applications, such as Command, Control, Communication and Intelligence (C31) functions. Various standards for intelligent vector spatial data are in the process of implementation for both civil and military purposes. The Hydrographic Service Royal Australian Navy (HSRAN) is at the forefront in defining and adopting those standards, however, the standards are still crystallising and conversion will take many years. In 1995 Hydrographic Sciences Australia Pty Ltd (HSA) and HSRAN undertook a feasibility study to provide a bridge to the forthcoming vector chart regime by defining and developing an electronic raster chart data product (now named Seafarer). HSA however, conceptualised a more substantial facility known as the Raster Data Centre (ROC) which not only created and maintained the Seafarer product, but also provided many other advantages and cost savings to HSRAN. The then RAN Hydrographer, CDRE Wllis, agreed to commit to this concept and contracted HSA to design, develop and operate the Raster Data Centre. This article is an edited version of the joint submission (submitted in early 1998) by HSA and HSRAN, which was judged worthy of receiving the BHP Engineering Pty. Ltd. and MSIA Technology Research and Development Award, 1998 in the Institutional Category. The raster charts in the Seafare® product also won Gold in the 1998 MSIA Cartographic Excellence Award. A follow up article is planned which will discuss the experiences of the HSRAN in marketing the Seafare® product and which will also introduce the cartographic complexities of producing Australia's first authorised vector Electronic Navigation Charts.

Medical assistance in the maritime community

Medical assistance in the maritime community

Medical assistance in the maritime community

Medical assistance in the maritime community

David Mauk's 'The Colony that Rose From the Sen: Norwegian Maritime Migration and Community in Brooklyn, 1850-1910'

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Reading the Bodies of Early American Seafarers

I N one of his poignant vignettes, Herman Melville recorded the declining years of a man who had spent his entire working life at sea. Landsmen and women who encountered Daniel Orme were impressed by the features that defined him as a sailor, his moody and tanned complexion, his scars, the darned Guernsey frock he wore, and the crucifix tattooed on his chest. Interpreting these wens and knobs and distortions of the bark as the measure of the man, Melville was fascinated by the ways in which this lifelong seafarer defined himself, and was defined by others, by his very body.1 Few American seafarers were long-term professionals like Orme. Seeking youthful adventure and income, attempting to escape obligations, problems, and debts, or despairing of employment ashore, many men signed up for an occasional voyage but spent the greater part of their adult lives on land.2 Historians have found it difficult to learn about the before-the-mast career seamen who were at the heart of the maritime community, for when they appear in such records as tax lists and militia rolls, it is all but impossible to