Marine Spatial Planning Research Articles

Staying close to home: Marine habitat selection by foraging yellow-eyed penguins using spatial distribution models

Endangered yellow-eyed penguins (Megadyptes antipodes) are central-place, benthic-diving foragers that search for prey in the productive marine areas off the coast of the South Island, New Zealand. Like other seabirds, they target specific, reliable areas of high prey abundance, which are often associated with oceanographic characteristics such as bathymetry, seafloor sediment type, and sea surface temperature. Employing GPS tracking data collected between 2003 and 2021, we created species distribution models using maximum entropy modelling (Maxent) to determine foraging space use and habitat suitability for yellow-eyed penguins across their entire South Island range and within five distinct subpopulations: Banks Peninsula, North Otago, Otago Peninsula, the Catlins, and Stewart Island. We quantified the importance of environmental variables for predicting foraging site selection during and outside the breeding season. Significant regional variation existed in predicted probability of penguin presence, and proximity to the nearest breeding area was a key predictor of suitable foraging habitat. When distance was not included in the models, dissolved oxygen concentration was the most important predictor in the overall South Island model and the North Otago, Otago Peninsula, and the Catlins subpopulation models, whereas water current speed and mean monthly turbidity were most important in Banks Peninsula and Stewart Island subpopulation models, respectively. Dynamic variables related to prey availability were often the most important variables in model predictions of the habitat selection of yellow-eyed penguins. Visualisations and findings from this study, particularly of the observed interactions between penguins and their marine habitat, can be used to direct conservation and resources during marine spatial planning and species management.

Quantitative Evaluation of Reclamation Intensity Based on Regional Planning Theory and Human–Marine Coordination Since 1974: A Case Study of Shandong, China

Increased reclamation activity has adversely affected the conservation of coastal environments. The interactions between reclamation activities and their interference with the natural and functional properties of coastal zones increase the difficulty of marine spatial planning and eco-environmental management. In this study, an evaluation method for describing the intensity of the reclamation activity (RAI) based on regional planning theory and human–marine coordination theory was proposed, and a quantitative evaluation index system was constructed. The method was applied to Shandong Province in China via geographic information system (GIS) spatial analysis. The results reveal that there was an obvious increase in the RAI from 1974 to 2021, with the total reclamation scale index and coordination of reclamation activities index being the most prominent. In addition, it was found that 2007–2017 was the peak period of infilling reclamation in Shandong Province. The natural coastlines are mainly occupied by enclosed mariculture and saltern, which should be strictly managed. The proposed index system can effectively identify the spatiotemporal characteristics of the reclamation intensity and can be used to efficiently determine management priorities. It provides a theoretical basis for regional reclamation management and can be conveniently adopted by management departments for coastal environmental protection.

The extension of marine spatial planning to the management of the world ocean, especially areas beyond national jurisdiction

Up until now, marine spatial planning (MSP) has been developed primarily in sea areas that are under national sovereignty, i.e., territorial waters and economic exclusive zones. There are proposals for extending MSP to areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ). However, the lack of a clear legal framework to support such attempts limits their viability This paper draws on existing MSP and wider spatial planning experience, and proposes three different scenarios for the creation of planning systems covering the entire world ocean based on the characteristics of different areas. The most promising seems to be the flexible grassroots spatiality approach that would be based on an international agreement to plan ABNJ along with the grass-root efforts of various organisations and planning professionals. The paper identifies key preconditions for the successful introduction of MSP in ABNJ with a focus on resilience and regulatory and supportive ecosystem services. The use of various types of spatial planning is also proposed, prioritizing information and indicative planning, stock-taking and vision-building, making use of non-binding plans, aligning plans for ABNJ and areas under national jurisdiction (AUNJ) and continuous monitoring and evaluation of the results of MSP processes.

Spatial and Temporal Characteristics of California Commercial Fisheries from 2005 to 2019 and Potential Overlap with Offshore Wind Energy Development

AbstractAs climate change accelerates and fisheries management continues to evolve, California's commercial fisheries are changing. To improve the understanding of recent California fisheries dynamics, we compiled and analyzed commercial landings receipts to characterize temporal and spatial variation in landing and value of key fisheries groups within the exclusive economic zone across the state from 2005 to 2019. We found that California fisheries continue a shift first observed in the 1980s from higher‐biomass, lower‐value species, such as coastal pelagic species and market squid, toward lower‐biomass, higher‐value species, such as Dungeness crab Cancer magister and groundfish. Over the 15‐year time series analyzed, total landings declined by nearly two‐thirds but total value remained relatively stable, likely due to a focus on higher value species and rising prices. The northern half of the state has become much more economically valuable, accounting for over 50% of total value across the state in 2019. A case study analysis found groundfish to be the dominant fisheries in the two areas that have been identified as priorities for potential offshore wind development in central and northern California. Our results elucidate the most recent status and trends of California's commercial fisheries, over time, across space, and among different fisheries groups, providing valuable information for informing fisheries management and marine spatial planning.

해양공간계획 및 관리에 관한 법의 한계와 개선방안

In order to comprehensively manage the marine space, Korea enacted the Act on ‘Marine Spatial Planning(MSP) and Management’ in 2018. However it has been doubtable that the Act has some inadequacies to effectively deal with sea use conflict due to the lack of institutional frame-work of marine governance and integrated marine spatial information system. Accordingly, this paper aimed to analyze the factor of inadequacies of the current system and to propose improvement of the Act. By conducting this study, the paper analyzed the domestic law and the emerging international MSP discourse by understanding of each state’s legal and institutional framework. As a result We found that MSP has some key values that not only standardize huge volume of marine spatial information and give decision-makers to optical marine using scenario based on scientific results but utilize these information on approval. Furthermore each state introduces different system to achieve these values but has a similar pattern that the state established inter-ministerial executive organization to manage MSP and Integrated Marine Information System to comprehensively deal with datas. Among the cases United States, United Kingdom, China was selected as an example due to its well-ordered MSP system supported by ministries. Finally, the study came to the conclusion that Korea’s MSP needs an integrated marine information system and exclusive organization to manage MSP. To introduce above system, the study suggested that the exclusive organization is needed to be empowered the ‘Deemed Authorization or Permission’. This paper will provide a solid legal basis of an effective enforcement of MSP. By preventing uncertainty of zoning, this resolution will contribute to enhancing the public acceptance of MSP and defusing future conflicts in competing uses of marine space.

Protecting our coast for everyone's future: Indigenous and scientific knowledge support marine spatial protections proposed by Central Coast First Nations in Pacific Canada

AbstractWe, the Haíłzaqv, Kitasoo Xai'xais, Nuxalk and Wuikinuxv First Nations, are the traditional stewards of our territories in the Central Coast of British Columbia, Canada. Our traditional laws obligate us to manage and protect our territories for current and future generations. Spatial management is inherent to our cultures through the Hereditary Chief governance system, in which specific people within a lineage inherit the rights and responsibilities for stewarding specific areas.Since the 19th century, we have been experiencing cultural disruptions caused by settler colonialism, which are now worsened by the declines of marine species vital to our cultures. These declines reflect fishery impacts exacerbated by climate change.Western fisheries management focuses on maximum sustained yields (MSY), ignoring body size declines that disrupt food webs and diminish population productivity for vertebrate and invertebrate taxa, thereby eroding resilience to climate change. The worldview encompassed by the MSY framework—take the most that you can without compromising future exploitation while assuming no environmental change—is the antithesis of ours—take only what you need and leave lots for the ecosystem. Furthermore, standard stock assessments do not account for uncertainties inherent to climate change effects on distributions and productivity, and many by‐catch species are unassessed.Consistent with our traditional knowledge, scientific evidence indicates that marine protected areas (MPAs), coupled with other measures to reduce fishing mortality, can restore exploited species, safeguard biodiversity and contribute to fisheries sustainability.In the 2000s, we paired Indigenous knowledge and Western science to develop marine spatial plans. These plans are foundational in our contribution to the ongoing development of the Marine Protected Area Network for Canada's Northern Shelf Bioregion (MPAN‐NSB), for which we are co‐governance partners with 14 other First Nations and the governments of Canada and British Columbia.Our proposed spatial protections for the MPAN‐NSB encompass areas important to many exploited taxa and to corals, sponges, eelgrass beds and other carbon stores. Their implementation would fill conservation gaps which have persisted under current fishery management.Given our history of spatial management through the Hereditary Chief governance system, the MPAN‐NSB is a culturally appropriate way forward for marine conservation in our territories.Read the freePlain Language Summaryfor this article on the Journal blog.

An integrated strategy for monitoring cetaceans in data-poor regions

A fundamental issue in cetacean conservation is determining the occurrence, distribution, and habitat use of target species. However, these baselines are extremely deficient in many poorly investigated regions, making it challenging to inform conservation management initiatives. In this case study, we employed three complementary approaches to generate conservation baselines on a “Vulnerable” near-shore delphinid species, the Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin, Sousa chinensis, in the waters southwest of Hainan (SW Hainan), China. First, in late 2013, we conducted large-scale local ecological knowledge (LEK) surveys with 510 Hainanese fishers. Our LEK findings revealed that SW Hainan was a previously underreported area with numerous fishermen encounters of humpback dolphins dating back to the 1970s. Second, from 2014 to 2019, we conducted monthly boat-based visual surveys in SW Hainan. Our sighting data verified the reliability of previous LEK findings and further confirmed the year-round occurrence and species dominance of humpback dolphins in SW Hainan. Third, we applied a supplementary approach (stationary passive acoustic monitoring, PAM) to monitor dolphin biosonar activities in the region. Our 10-site PAM dataset from February 2018 to June 2019 indicated spatiotemporal variations in dolphin click detections. To conclude, our findings, derived from multiple approaches, provide a scientific basis for cetacean conservation management and marine spatial planning on a regional scale. More generally, this study offers an integrated monitoring strategy consisting of three step-by-step approaches, which can help conservationists, especially those who work in data-deficient waters, obtain critical baseline data on cetaceans in an efficient, timely, and reliable way.

Projected climate change impact on a coastal sea-As significant as all current pressures combined.

Climate change influences the ocean's physical and biogeochemical conditions, causing additional pressures on marine environments and ecosystems, now and in the future. Such changes occur in environments that already today suffer under pressures from, for example, eutrophication, pollution, shipping, and more. We demonstrate how to implement climate change into regional marine spatial planning by introducing data of future temperature, salinity, and sea ice cover from regional ocean climate model projections to an existing cumulative impact model. This makes it possible to assess climate change impact in relation to pre‐existing cumulative impact from current human activities. Results indicate that end‐of‐century projected climate change alone is a threat of the same magnitude as the combination of all current pressures to the marine environment. These findings give marine planners and policymakers forewarning on how future climate change may impact marine ecosystems, across space, emission scenarios, and in relation to other pressures.

Ecosystem Services of Ecosystem Approach to Mariculture: Providing an Unprecedented Opportunity for the Reform of China’s Sustainable Aquaculture

China is the biggest provider of mariculture products, and the industry is still growing rapidly. Increasing scientific evidence indicates that mariculture may provide valuable ecosystem goods and services in China. Here, we performed a systematic literature review of studies with the aim of understanding the ecosystem services of mariculture and a comprehensive review of ecosystem approaches that may improve mariculture ecosystem services and goods in China. We highlight four ecosystem services functions in China, including food supply, nutrient extraction, carbon sequestration, and biodiversity conservation. Given the further reform of China’s mariculture, we outlined several ecosystem approaches including integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA), carrying capacity assessment and monitoring, marine spatial planning, and waste treatment and recirculating mariculture system. We conclude that the ecosystem services of the ecosystem approach to mariculture provide an unprecedented opportunity for the reform of China’s sustainable aquaculture. Finally, a synthesis of sustainable development of mariculture, along with the five recommendations for future mariculture development in China, is outlined.

Chinese legislation on protection of underwater cultural heritage in marine spatial planning and its implementation

ABSTRACT Underwater cultural heritage (UCH) means all traces of human existence having a cultural or historical character which have been lain underwater for a certain period of time. Marine spatial planning (MSP) is a major planning tool employed by States for the purpose of coordinating various sea uses and achieving sustainable development of the sea and coastal areas. Among various sea uses, the protection of underwater cultural heritage has often been overlooked. Fortunately, people have already realized the importance of underwater cultural heritage. How to integrate the UCH protection into MSP is a common challenge for all States around the globe. In China, the integration of UCH protection into MSP is also considered a problem awaiting immediate solution. The present study will review the relevant legislation of China and its implementation. Existing problems and possible solutions will be discussed.

Exploring resource and environmental carrying capacity and suitability for use in marine spatial planning: A case study of Wenzhou, China

The sea is the key to conducting sustainable scientific research and achieving strategic development of economic and environmental goals. The international community attaches great importance to the coordinated development of marine ecology, environment and socio-economic growth, and Europe has taken the lead in conducting relevant research. In recent years, although China has gradually tried to use quantitative and precise models for spatial planning, it still lacks a scientific logic - from theory to methodology - to address marine spatial planning. Based on the previous study of ecological and environmental quality and socio-economic development, this paper advocates the application logic of marine resources and ecological carrying capacity (MRECC) and marine use suitability (MUS). The Wenzhou City in Zhejiang Province was selected as the research area and MRECC is measured by four dimensions: spatial development of the marine area, fishery resources, environment and ecology. Two types of typical marine use, fishing use and construction use, were selected as the suitability for analysis to determine the optimal spatial arrangement of the sea and to assess the spatial conflict of the sea in Wenzhou. The results show that: (1) the comprehensive carrying capacity index of the marine area varies greatly among the districts and counties of Wenzhou city, and the resources and environment are highly differentiated. Longwan and Dongtou counties are overburdened with fishery resource development; Yueqing city and Longwan county are overburdened with marine environment. (2) There are only a few suitable areas for fisheries, and these are distributed in the nearshore area. The unsuitable areas are concentrated in the Oujiang River, Feiyun River and Aojiang River estuary. The areas that are particularly suitable for marine construction are concentrated in the coastal waters. The water depth in the near-shore area is far from urban settlements, which is not suitable for marine construction and development. (3) The spatial conflict phenomena in Cangnan County and Pingyang County are less - the spatial arrangement of marine planning is more reasonable. Yueqing City, Longwan County and Dongtou County have significant conflicts in the arrangement of marine fishery use and need to be optimised. Overall, the intensive development of the sea affects the carrying capacity and suitability of the sea, and inevitably leads to conflicts in the sea. Marine protection and development urgently require active management measures and sound spatial planning. The implementation of targeted and marine spatial planning with “double assessment” is of great importance for coastal spatial planning and an important means to achieve sustainable development of the marine economy. Therefore, the recommendations are to implement environmental protection of coastal areas, improve the level of marine development and balance the development of marine areas to promote the sustainable development of the region.

Marine spatial planning in Croatia

The introduction of marine spatial planning (hereafter: MSP) for Croatia is essential, considering the coastline length and the increasing usurpation of coastal and marine space. MSP is more than a process that regulates the activities on the sea. It is an analytical approach to the setup of human activities in the marine area. As a maritime country, Croatia has ratified the Protocol on Integrated Coastal Zone Management and undertook the obligations of the Barcelona Convention. However, an appropriate document has not yet been made that would enable quality management of marine space. MSP and its onshore version contribute to the establishment and development of various activities, taking into account environmental, natural, economic, and sociological criteria. MSP is a continuation of spatial planning of the mainland area and must undoubtedly consider the more expansive coastal environment and the activities there. One of the tools in marine area mapping is the Geographic Information System (GIS), which has proven to be a very high quality and effective tool, especially in decision-making processes. The authors analyze the existing legal framework for marine spatial planning. Particular emphasis is placed on the obligations facing the Republic of Croatia to implement marine spatial planning. Given that the paper seeks to determine the advantages of MSP implementation using modern tools in marine area mapping, the authors in the third part discuss the benefits of using GIS as an acceptable tool in mapping marine space and provide recommendations for further actions.

Description and Spatial Modelling of Benthic Communities Distribution in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago

In the Arctic, sea ice loss has already transformed the dominant sources and periodicity of primary production in some areas, raising concerns over climate change impacts on benthic communities. Considered to be excellent indicators of environmental changes, benthic invertebrates play important roles in nutrient cycling, sediment oxygenation and decomposition. However, this biological component of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago (CAA) is still somewhat poorly studied compared to other Arctic regions. To partly fill this need, this study aims to evaluate benthic community composition and its relationship to significant environmental drivers and to develop spatial predictive explanatory models of these communities to expand coverage between sampled stations across the Kitikmeot Sea region and Parry Channel. Results from previously collected samples suggest that biodiversity is higher in this region compared to the Beaufort and Baffin Seas, two adjacent regions to the West and East, respectively. This finding leads to the main hypothesis that (1) benthic communities are succeeding one another, forming an ecotone (transition area) between the Beaufort Sea and the Baffin Sea. Other hypotheses are that (2) Pacific Ocean water influence through the CAA can explain part of this gradient, and that (3) terrigenous inputs affect the distribution of species. Overall, results tend to confirm hypotheses. Generalized Linear Models (GLMs) (with R2 up to 0.80) clearly displayed a succession in community distribution from Queen-Maud Gulf (Southwest) to Lancaster Sound (Northeast). Such models can be useful in identifying potential biodiversity hotspots and as a baseline for marine spatial planning purposes. Further, Pacific origin water (traced with concentrations of nitrate relative to phosphate) and terrigenous inputs (traced with silicate concentrations) were related to species and community distribution. Given that these two inputs/factors are generally increasing in the Canadian Arctic, their influence on benthic communities may also be seen to increase in the upcoming years.

Extracting foraging behavior from passive acoustic monitoring data to better understand harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) foraging habitat use

AbstractFor odontocetes, passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) can be used to differentiate between occurrence and foraging through analysis of click characteristics. Feeding buzzes and navigation/searching echolocation clicks of harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) were differentiated within C‐POD data from northwest Ireland between 2009 and 2017. The spatiotemporal distribution of foraging behavior was investigated using generalized additive modelling, at multiple temporal scales. Both the presence/absence of buzzes and foraging intensity (defined by buzz:click ratios) were determined. Feeding buzzes were identified in one third of porpoise positive hours, ranging from 15% in summer, to 40% in autumn, highlighting seasonal variation irrespective of porpoise occurrence. Complex interannual variation in foraging behavior was also shown across the time series. A strong nocturnal peak in foraging intensity was observed. We found increased porpoise foraging with dolphin species detections within the same hour, and a negative impact of construction activities, involving both impulsive and broadband noise. Results highlight the value of long‐term acoustic time series, by quantifying variation, and show that extracting foraging behavior from occurrence data can help to unravel habitat use patterns, responses to disturbance, and seasonal changes in behavior. Understanding when and how a species uses an area can better inform marine spatial planning and help mitigate anthropogenic impacts.

Sympatric Seals, Satellite Tracking and Protected Areas: Habitat-Based Distribution Estimates for Conservation and Management

Marine predator populations are crucial to the structure and functioning of ecosystems. Like many predator taxa, pinnipeds face an increasingly complex array of natural and anthropogenic threats. Understanding the relationship between at-sea processes and trends in abundance at land-based monitoring sites requires robust estimates of at-sea distribution, often on multi-region scales. Such an understanding is critical for effective conservation management, but estimates are often limited in spatial extent by spatial coverage of animal-borne tracking data. Grey (Halichoerus grypus) and harbour seals (Phoca vitulina) are sympatric predators in North Atlantic shelf seas. The United Kingdom (UK) and Ireland represents an important population centre for both species, and Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) are designated for their monitoring and protection. Here we use an extensive high-resolution GPS tracking dataset, unprecedented in both size (114 grey and 239 harbour seals) and spatial coverage, to model habitat preference and generate at-sea distribution estimates for the entire UK and Ireland populations of both species. We found regional differences in environmental drivers of distribution for both species which likely relate to regional variation in diet and population trends. Moreover, we provide SAC-specific estimates of at-sea distribution for use in marine spatial planning, demonstrating that hotspots of at-sea density in UK and Ireland-wide maps cannot always be apportioned to the nearest SAC. We show that for grey seals, colonial capital breeders, there is a mismatch between SACs (where impacts are likely to be detected) and areas where impacts are most likely to occur (at sea). We highlight an urgent need for further research to elucidate the links between at-sea distribution during the foraging season and population trends observed in SACs. More generally, we highlight that the potential for such a disconnect needs to be considered when designating and managing protected sites, particularly for species that aggregate to breed and exhibit partial migration (e.g. grey seals), or spatial variation in migration strategies. We demonstrate the use of strategic tracking efforts to predict distribution across multiple regions, but caution that such efforts should be mindful of the potential for differences in species-environment relationships despite similar accessible habitats.

Mediterranean Sea shelters for the gold coral Savalia savaglia (Bertoloni, 1819): An assessment of potential distribution of a rare parasitic species

Savalia savaglia is an ecosystem engineer listed as Near-Threatened by the IUCN, even though effective management and proper monitoring efforts to assess its distribution is still lacking. The record of large, long-established colonies can indicate the occurrence of areas with limited human local pressure. These areas may be considered as proxies for the creation of baselines of reference useful to design restoration strategies. The aim of this work was to update the distribution of S. savaglia Mediterranean populations to develop an Ecological Niche Model, highlighting potential areas for future monitoring programs. Occurrence data were collected and harmonized into a single dataset using the scientific literature and validated observations to feed a presence-only MaxEnt model, obtaining a basin-level potential distribution of the species. The results of our study can support decision-makers in marine spatial planning measures including the preservation of mesophotic environments and prioritizing areas for conservation.

Towards Incorporation of Blue Carbon in Falkland Islands Marine Spatial Planning: A Multi-Tiered Approach

Ecosystem-based conservation that includes carbon sinks, alongside a linked carbon credit system, as part of a nature-based solution to combating climate change, could help reduce greenhouse gas levels and therefore the impact of their emissions. Blue carbon habitats and pathways can also facilitate biodiversity retention, aiding sustainable fisheries and island economies. However, robust blue carbon research is often limited at the scale of regional governance and management, lacking both incentives and facilitation of policy-integration. The remote and highly biodiverse coastal ecosystems and surrounding continental shelf can be used to better inform long-term ecosystem-based management in the vast South Atlantic Ocean and sub-Antarctic, to synergistically protect both unique biodiversity and inform on the magnitude of nature-based benefits they provide. Understanding key ecosystem information such as their location, extent, and condition of habitat types, will be critical in understanding carbon pathways to sequestration, threats to this, and vulnerability. This paper considers the current status of blue carbon data and information available, and what is still required before blue carbon can be used as a conservation management tool integrated in national Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) initiatives. Our research indicates that the data and information gathered has enabled baselines for a number of different blue carbon ecosystems, and indicated potential threats and vulnerability that need to be managed. However, significant knowledge gaps remain across habitats, such as salt marsh, mudflats and the mesophotic zones, which hinders meaningful progress on the ground where it is needed most.

Enabling conditions for effective marine spatial planning

As marine spatial planning (MSP) continues to gain global prominence as an approach to ocean governance, planners and other stakeholders are eager to evaluate its social and ecological outcomes and to better understand whether plans are achieving their intended results in an equitable and cost-efficient manner. While a plan’s outcomes for marine environments and coastal communities may be of particular interest, these results cannot be separated from planning processes. The field has yet to fully develop the guidance necessary for this critical consideration of how features of an MSP process and external factors interact with plan performance and outcomes. To fill this gap we used a literature review and expert discussions to identify 19 enabling or disabling conditions of MSP within four major categories: Plan Attributes, Legal Context, Plan Development and Social Context, and Integration. We propose semi-quantitative scoring and the development of narratives to operationalize the framework as part of a comprehensive methodology for MSP outcome evaluation. Applying the framework can add depth to quantitative MSP evaluation, shed light on questions of outcome attribution, and inform plan adaptation. Evaluating MSP outcomes in the explicit context of the enabling or disabling conditions identified here can stimulate discussion around what works in MSP and provide a path forward for assessing the benefits and costs of MSP worldwide. By identifying conditions instrumental to effective MSP, and alternatively, conditions hindering a plan, the framework can be used to guide plan adaptation and promote learning across the wider MSP community.

Evaluation of MPA designs that protect highly mobile megafauna now and under climate change scenarios

Marine protected area (MPA) designs, including large-scale MPAs (LSMPAs; >150,000 km 2 ), mobile MPAs (fluid spatiotemporal boundaries), and MPA networks, may offer different benefits to species and could enhance protection by encompassing spatiotemporal scales of animal movement. We sought to understand how well LSMPAs could benefit nine highly-mobile marine species in the tropics now and into the future by: 1) evaluating current range overlap within a LSMPA; 2) evaluating range overlap under climate change projections; and 3) evaluating how well theoretical MPA designs benefit these nine species. We focused on Palmyra Atoll and Kingman Reef, a 2000 km 2 area within the 1.2 million km 2 U.S. Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument (PRIMNM) that contains marine megafauna (reef and pelagic fishes; sea turtles; seabirds; cetaceans) reflecting different behaviors and habitat use. Our approach is useful for evaluating the effectiveness of the Palmyra-Kingman MPA and PRIMNM in protecting these species, and tropical LSMPAs in general, and for informing future MPA design. Stationary MPAs provided protection at varying scales. Reef manta rays ( Mobula alfredi ), grey reef sharks ( Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos ), green sea turtles ( Chelonia mydas ), and bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops truncatus ) had overall small ranges (<100 km from Palmyra-Kingman) and could benefit from stationary MPAs that contained heterogenous reef habitats. Yellowfin tuna ( Thunnus albacares ), sooty terns ( Onychoprion fuscatus ), red-footed boobies ( Sula sula ), great frigatebirds ( Fregata minor ), and melon-headed whales ( Peponocephala electra ) navigated complex oceanographic processes and may benefit most from mobile MPAs that shift with features including thermal fronts, cyclic regions of elevated productivity, and eddies, if relationships with these features are established and predictable. All species had capacity to travel to nearby reef systems, illustrating potential benefits of MPA networks and protected corridors. Suitable habitats will likely contract for all species as warm water expands under climate change scenarios (species habitats were predicted to decrease by 4–49% at Palmyra-Kingman) and MPAs may not protect suitable habitats into the future. Species habitat requirements and movement ecologies are critical aspects of marine spatial planning, especially with respect to dynamic ocean processes and a changing climate. • How well do large-scale MPAs protect wide-ranging megafauna they claim to protect? • We assessed scales of movement relative to MPA boundaries, designs & climate change. • Protected habitats were greatest for reef-based sharks, manta rays, sea turtles. • Tuna, seabirds, cetaceans less protected offshore or by dynamic ocean processes. • Habitats shifted away from MPAs under climate change.

An issue-oriented framework for Marine Spatial Planning—A case study of Koh Lan, Thailand

Marine spatial planning (MSP) is adopted as an effective marine resource management tool worldwide to balance the growing development needs and marine conservation. However, the launch of MSP in some countries is still in its infancy due to lack of capacity to compile MSP, such as insufficient financial support, ineffective marine governance system and limited data. To implement MSP within the limitation of capacity, an effective solution would be to target at reconciling the principal contradiction between exploitation and conservation. An issue-oriented framework of MSP for spatial planning was proposed to deal with the constraint and applied it successfully in Koh Lan, Thailand. The framework consists of four layers, namely the layer of issues, the layer of survey and data collection, the layer of analysis, and the layer of policy making. By identifying main conflicts and problems on the island, four thematic analyses were conducted: topographic factor assessment land-based sewage outlet analysis, hydrodynamic characteristics and sewage discharge, habitat quality of the island and its surrounding waters and the island tourism environment based on tourists’ perception, and finally form the MSP plan based on the analyses and stakeholder participation. Lessons learned were highlighted that: (1) Data-driven MSP is fundamental to improve scientificity; (2) Issue-oriented MSP is an effective way of regional marine management and (3) Government impetus and coordination between government and stakeholders is an important guarantee to promote the implementation of MSP. The issue-oriented framework for MSP provides a solution to the problem of slow MSP progress due to inadequate capacity.