Marine Protected Areas Research Articles

Coral reefs of Pakistan: a comprehensive review of anthropogenic threats, climate change, and conservation status

The coral reefs along Pakistan’s coastline are of ecological and economic significance. However, they are increasingly threatened by anthropogenic threats and climate change. These vulnerable ecosystems are declining due to various factors such as sedimentation, climate change, overfishing, destructive fishing practices, marine pollution, and tourism development. We found that 29%, 24%, 26%, 16% and 18% of the studies exceeding, marine pollution, overfishing/destructive fishing, coastal tourism, climate change and sedimentation, respectively; thus, indicating inadequate water quality status in part of Pakistan coastal water. These influences lead to several negative impacts, such as jeopardized coral health, decline in biodiversity, and the simplification of reef structures. In response to these threats, conservation efforts are imperative. This literature review provides an in-depth analysis of anthropogenic threats, climate change and the conservation of coral reefs in Pakistan. This review provides suggestions on how the country could better conserve its coral reef ecosystem. These include (1) initiatives such as establishing marine protected areas (MPAs), (2) encouraging sustainable fishing practices and reducing pollution, (3) developing the country as an ecotourism destination and implementing climate change adaptation measures, and (4) community engagement through awareness campaigns and fostering collaboration among, governmental organizations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and scientists. These comprehensive conservation policies address human-caused and other challenges, safeguarding their ecological, economic, and cultural relevance for future generations.

Examining the discrepancy and synergy between marine protected areas and fisheries management in the Bohai Sea, China

Marine protected areas (MPAs) and other area-based conservation measures used in conjunction with climate-smart fisheries management approaches are important for safeguarding ecosystem and fish population health. However, spatial management approaches are often implemented separately from non-spatial management interventions due to their distinct legislative processes, management priorities, and administrating agencies. As global ocean governance becomes increasingly spatial in compliance with the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, it is imperative to examine the utility of MPAs as a wider ecosystem approach to complement traditional, single species fisheries management. In this study, we examine current policy and management transformations happening in the Bohai Sea in China and demonstrate the discrepancies and synergies between MPA governance and fisheries management. By evaluating their interactions in objective setting, area selection, and management regulations, we reveal the gaps in coordination and consultancy between the government agencies implementing fisheries and spatial conservation measures. In particular, there is ambiguity or lack of consideration of fisheries management objectives in the framing of conservation area objectives and regulations, and vice versa. In addition, the mismatch between stated objectives of MPAs and their geographic coverage of species distribution ranges suggests insufficient incorporation of fishery expertise in conservation planning. To strengthen the cooperation between fisheries and conservation authorities, we identify opportunities and actions for synergizing management goals and ecosystem-based approaches, improving the design of spatial restrictions, and better integrating spatial management interventions as a critical fisheries and ecosystem-based management approach. These proposed changes will necessitate the creation of processes for engaging the full spectrum of expertise and actors, enhancing collaborations at multiple scales and between different sectors. These findings offer practical insights into bridging the gap between fisheries management and MPAs and could inform further decisions on integrated management in the Bohai Sea and elsewhere.

Functional traits and ecosystem implications in the Multiple Use Marine Protected Area Almirantazgo Sound: A baseline study of scallop banks and benthic communities

Amid escalating environmental challenges confronting marine ecosystems, the proliferation of coastal and marine protected areas (MPAs) has emerged as a pivotal strategy for mitigating biodiversity loss and fostering sustainable resource management. This research advocates for a paradigm shift towards a trait-based approach to assess functional diversity (FD) within MPAs, with a specific focus on the ecologically crucial Austrochlamys natans banks in Parry Bay, MPA Almirantazgo Sound. By surveying 28 invertebrate species across eight phyla, a PCA using fuzzy-coded functional traits revealed five distinct groupings primarily based on feeding, movement, and reproductive modes. Mobile predators and scavengers clustered distinctly from sessile suspension feeders and limited-mobility grazers, indicating a scarcity of mobile predator species in Parry Bay, which impacts the ecosystem's dynamics. FD indices highlighted low functional α-diversity, emphasizing trait redundancy that enhances resilience but relies heavily on a few unique and specialized species. The potential extinction or migration of these species could directly affect unique ecosystem properties. While revealing the resilience of the benthic community, this research underscores its dependence on a handful of species that are crucial for both ecological functions and regional commercial significance. Urgent conservation and management measures are imperative to protect these species and maintain the delicate balance of this ecosystem.

Establishing a Marine Protected Area network using a Marine Spatial Planning approach: A reflection on practical challenges and opportunities for social–ecological integration

AbstractIntegrative social–ecological approaches are crucial for addressing sustainability challenges in coastal and marine systems. Among these, Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) emerges as a pivotal approach for integrated management. Often, the establishment of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and the application of MSP occur in parallel. Given the potential synergies, there is a need to better understand and address barriers to the adoption of MSP approaches for integrative conservation mechanisms. Using São Tomé and Príncipe as a case study, we illustrate how MSP was employed as an operational framework for establishing an MPA network. Drawing on the experiences of people directly involved in this co‐design process, we reflect on the main challenges and opportunities in achieving social–ecological integration, and highlight recommendations for conservation practitioners and planners. Applying MSP was perceived to contribute substantially to multiple project goals, with some (e.g., incorporating perspectives and needs of vulnerable groups) more challenging to achieve. While MSP enhanced conceptual, disciplinary, methodological and functional integration, practical challenges in implementation hindered the extent to which each of these was achieved. Given international commitments to Blue Growth, high fisheries dependence and current patterns of change, developing effective integrative MSP approaches is essential for social–ecological resilience.

Bayesian estimation of spatially varying mortality risk using tagged animal data

Abstract The survival of animals is impacted by landscapes of spatially varying mortality factors including habitat type, predation risk or harvest risk, among others. Characterization of these spatial mortality processes is important for managing animal populations and their habitats, yet this information has proved challenging to capture. Advances in telemetry now make it possible to monitor tagged individuals' locations through time for a wide range of taxa, providing opportunity to assess movement and mortality simultaneously through spatial time‐to‐event data. Existing time‐to‐event modelling frameworks have largely ignored spatially varying mortality processes or have treated an animal's location as fixed at a regional level. Here we present a general spatial survival model for analysing time‐to‐event data arising from animal telemetry. Our model has a flexible Cox regression form and can estimate the effects of conventional non‐spatial risk factors (size, seasonality, etc.), spatial covariates (e.g. habitat type) and spatial variation in risk not explained by covariates on mortality. We show how to fit our model using Bayesian methods and demonstrate applications of our model with several simulated examples and two animal telemetry case studies. Our model produced consistent and unbiased parameter estimates throughout simulations with a variety of spatial and non‐spatial hazards. In the first case study, data from 147 tagged caribou in British Columbia, Canada, revealed a spatially heterogeneous mortality landscape with caribou survival varying by elevation, likely in response to space use by predators. Our second case study involved a dataset of 390 acoustically tagged Atlantic cod in a southern Norwegian fjord where a marine protected area (MPA) was established during the study. We found that the MPA led to a shift from mostly fishing mortality to mostly natural mortality within the fjord and that these risks had markedly different spatial hazard patterns. Our spatial time‐to‐event model can make use of data from a variety of widely used telemetry technologies to characterize landscapes of mortality risks for different taxa. Our work provides new opportunities to inform the spatial ecology and management of fish and wildlife populations.

Fully protected marine areas linked to reduced home ranges of fishes

AbstractHome range size is a fundamental trait that can affect the probability of fish being harvested and, at the same time, may be affected by fishing. The relationship between home range size and fishing will impact the effectiveness of fully protected areas (FPAs), as it will influence the number of fish moving into fished areas, affecting both spillover and edge effects. One hypothesis is that individuals within FPAs will present reduced home range size relative to individuals in fished areas. This pattern can be driven by demographic selection (e.g. fishing of individuals with large home ranges leaving the FPAs), improved habitat requiring less foraging movements, or behavioural changes associated with reduced fishing threats. To test the relationship between home range size and protection, we compiled 1143 individual‐level home range sizes based on acoustic tracking, covering 17 species from 11 FPAs in 7 countries, with information on distance from FPA borders. A dichotomic analysis (in/out of FPAs) did not support a significant change in the home range size between FPAs and fished areas. However, continuous analysis across the FPA borders demonstrated reduced home range size within the FPAs. We did not find an effect of FPA age or size on this pattern. While we cannot pinpoint the underlying mechanism for the pattern revealed, we suggest behavioural changes as the main driver for reduced home range within FPAs. This mechanism will lead to more resident populations within FPAs, reducing fishing mortality within FPAs yet limiting spillover benefits to adjacent fisheries.

Spillover and competitive exclusion in the crustacean community following the implementation of a marine reserve

Abstract Flamanville marine protected area (MPA) located in Normandy, France, was created in 2000 to sustain the local crustacean fishery. In 1985, an annual survey targeting crustacean populations (e.g. European lobster Homarus gammarus, edible crab Cancer pagurus, and European spider crab Maja brachydactyla) that include the future MPA started. The MPA implementation effects were investigated in this study. The sampling design allowed the integration of spatial and temporal covariances to estimate the MPA effects. With respect to the initial objective, the MPA significantly improves the most economically valuable species, H. gammarus, abundance. Lobster catch per unit effort increased by 597% in the MPA, whereas outside it only increased by 156%. The MPA creation also led to an increase in lobster size inside the protected area. Furthermore, a few years after the MPA implementation, lobster catches showed a significant non-linear decline with distance from the centre of the reserve, suggesting a spillover effect. However, the edible crab catches were halved following the MPA implementation suggesting an opposite effect. Spider crab abundance seemed unaffected. Finally, the MPA implementation had no effect on edible crab and spider crab sizes. These differential responses appear to result from these species’ variable movement and competitive abilities.

Response of indicator species to changes in food web and ocean dynamics of the Ross Sea, Antarctica

Abstract Most of the Ross Sea has been designated a marine protected area (MPA), proposed ‘to protect ecosystem structure and function’. To assess effectiveness, the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) selected Adélie (Pygoscelis adeliae) and emperor (Aptenodytes forsteri) penguins, Weddell seals (Leptonychotes weddellii) and Antarctic toothfish (Dissostichus mawsoni) as ecosystem change ‘indicator species’. Stable for decades, penguin and seal populations increased during 1998–2018 to surpass historical levels, indicating that change in ecosystem structure and function is underway. We review historical impacts to population trends, decadal datasets of ocean climate and fishing pressure on toothfish. Statistical modelling for Adélie penguins and Weddell seals indicates that variability in climate factors and cumulative extraction of adult toothfish may explain these trends. These mesopredators, and adult toothfish, all prey heavily on Antarctic silverfish (Pleuragramma antarcticum). Toothfish removal may be altering intraguild predation dynamics, leading to competitive release of silverfish and contributing to penguin and seal population changes. Despite decades of ocean/weather change, increases in indicator species numbers around Ross Island only began once the toothfish fishery commenced. The rational-use, ecosystem-based viewpoint promoted by CCAMLR regarding toothfish management needs re-evaluation, including in the context of the Ross Sea Region MPA.

Optimizing underwater connectivity through multi-attribute decision-making for underwater IoT deployments using remote sensing technologies

The underwater Internet of Things (UIoT) and remote sensing are significant for biodiversity preservation, environmental protection, national security, disaster assistance, and technological innovation. Assigning tasks to autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) is a fundamental challenge in underwater technology and exploration. Remote sensing and AUVs are vital for pollution detection, disaster prevention, marine observation, and ocean monitoring. This work presents an optimized network connectivity using a multi-attribute decision-making approach for underwater IoT deployment. A feature engineering approach highlights the significant characteristics of underwater things, incorporating remote sensing data, and a multi-objective optimization method is used to select optimal UIoT for effective task allocation in deep-sea environments. A balance between data transmission, energy economy, and operational performance is necessary for efficient task distribution. Effective communication algorithms and protocols are needed to maintain environmental sustainability, protect marine ecosystems, and improve underwater monitoring enhanced by remote sensing technologies. Multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) is beneficial for addressing various challenges in underwater technology, considering factors such as mission objectives, energy efficiency, environmental conditions, vehicle performance, safety, and much more. The proposed criteria importance through intercriteria correlation (CRITIC) methodology will assess technical competencies like communication, resilience, navigation, and safety in an underwater environment, leveraging remote sensing and aiding decision-makers in selecting appropriate undersea devices and vehicles for enhancing communication and transportation. This method prioritizes characteristics and aligns them with specific objectives, improving decision-making quality in the marine environment.

Molecular forecasting of domoic acid during a pervasive toxic diatom bloom

In 2015, the largest recorded harmful algal bloom (HAB) occurred in the Northeast Pacific, causing nearly 100 million dollars in damages to fisheries and killing many protected marine mammals. Dominated by the toxic diatom Pseudo-nitzschia australis, this bloom produced high levels of the neurotoxin domoic acid (DA). Through molecular and transcriptional characterization of 52 near-weekly phytoplankton net-tow samples collected at a bloom hotspot in Monterey Bay, California, we identified active transcription of known DA biosynthesis (dab) genes from the three identified toxigenic species, including P. australis as the primary origin of toxicity. Elevated expression of silicon transporters (sit1) during the bloom supports the previously hypothesized role of dissolved silica (Si) exhaustion in contributing to bloom physiology and toxicity. We find that coexpression of the dabA and sit1 genes serves as a robust predictor of DA one week in advance, potentially enabling the forecasting of DA-producing HABs. We additionally present evidence that low levels of iron could have colimited the diatom population along with low Si. Iron limitation represents an overlooked driver of both toxin production and ecological success of the low-iron-adapted Pseudo-nitzschia genus during the 2015 bloom, and increasing pervasiveness of iron limitation may fuel the escalating magnitude and frequency of toxic Pseudo-nitzschia blooms globally. Our results advance understanding of bloom physiology underlying toxin production, bloom prediction, and the impact of global change on toxic blooms.

Reef fish biodiversity and occurrence of endangered sharks within a small marine protected area off Sint Maarten, Dutch Caribbean

AbstractMarine protected areas (MPAs) are common conservation tools supporting the protection of threatened marine fishes, such as sharks. However, the creation of shark MPAs has been less common in the Greater Caribbean region despite a growing need and opportunity. In this study, we evaluated the occurrence of shark and reef fish biodiversity off Sint Maarten, Dutch Caribbean, with a particular emphasis on endangered shark presence within the Man of War Shoal Marine Protected Area (MPA). We utilized baited remote underwater video systems (BRUVs) to gather non-invasive data on the abundance and diversity of reef fish and shark species inside and outside the local MPA. Generalized linear models (GLMs) revealed no significant effect of protection status on the presence of the endangered Caribbean reef shark (Carcharhinus perezi). However, we found a significant influence of depth on shark occurrence, as well as an effect of habitat type on shark and reef fish biodiversity, with reef habitats showing the greatest significance. These results suggest that the effect of small coastal MPAs on bolstering local endangered species conservation in the Dutch Caribbean is likely to vary according to habitat features and how those species utilize those habitats across various life stages. These findings have implications for adaptive MPA management, which should be informed by the ecology and habitat preferences of target species to achieve maximum benefits for biodiversity conservation.

Sustainable-use marine protected areas to improve human nutrition

Coral reef fisheries are a vital source of nutrients for thousands of nutritionally vulnerable coastal communities around the world. Marine protected areas are regions of the ocean designed to preserve or rehabilitate marine ecosystems and thereby increase reef fish biomass. Here, we evaluate the potential effects of expanding a subset of marine protected areas that allow some level of fishing within their borders (sustainable-use MPAs) to improve the nutrition of coastal communities. We estimate that, depending on site characteristics, expanding sustainable-use MPAs could increase catch by up to 20%, which could help prevent 0.3-2.85 million cases of inadequate micronutrient intake in coral reef nations. Our study highlights the potential add-on nutritional benefits of expanding sustainable-use MPAs in coral reef regions and pinpoints locations with the greatest potential to reduce inadequate micronutrient intake level. These findings provide critical knowledge given international momentum to cover 30% of the ocean with MPAs by 2030 and eradicate malnutrition in all its forms.

Using marine protected areas to assess the status and recovery of the spiny lobster Jasus edwardsii fishery in the Hauraki Gulf, Aotearoa New Zealand

The value of no-take marine protected areas (MPAs) in providing fisheries-independent information to evaluate the status of adjacent fish stocks is increasingly being recognised. However, to ensure robust assessments of fisheries using this approach, MPAs need to be representative of the wider fished area and sampling should include multiple MPA and fished locations spanning the area of interest. The spiny lobster Jasus edwardsii fishery in Aotearoa New Zealand’s Hauraki Gulf has been in decline since the late 1990s, but latest stock estimates suggest a dramatic recovery following catch reductions in 2018. We compared J. edwardsii populations on shallow reefs (<20 m depth) in three marine reserves with six fished locations across the Hauraki Gulf to provide a fisheries-independent assessment of this important fishery and the degree of recovery following catch reductions. Region-wide surveys found that J. edwardsii populations within protected areas were dominated by large, legal-size individuals, whereas lobster in fished locations were mostly below or around legal-size. Total, vulnerable, and spawning stock biomass was 12-43 times higher within MPAs compared to fished locations. Overall, biomass at fished locations was <10% of that in reserves and there was little evidence of recovery following catch reductions. Our fisheries-independent data suggest that recent stock assessments have severely overestimated the recovery and state of lobster populations in the Hauraki Gulf and that populations on shallow reefs remain depleted. These findings highlight the critical need for fisheries-independent data and the value of MPA monitoring data in evaluating population status and recovery following fisheries management actions.

GIS-Driven Method for Site Feasibility Assessment of Large-Scale Solar Thermal Seawater Desalination: An Australian Case Study

Concentrated solar power (CSP) plants can be coupled with seawater desalination via Multi-Effect Distillation (MED) by recovering the cycle’s ‘free’ waste heat. However, project viability, based on the payback period, is contingent upon systematic consideration of climate variability, topography, water resources, markets, and natural hazards. This study describes a data-driven method for screening and then selecting optimal sites in Australia by integrating a Geographic Information System (GIS), System Advisor Model (SAM), MATLAB program, and a Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) model. Results for potential sites based on only climate, topography, water resources, markets, and infrastructure identify approximately 2.13×105 km2 of land are suitable, granularly mainly located in the north-west and the south coastal regions with high solar resources (average direct normal irradiance (DNI) > 6 ). These regions encompass 56,000 km2 and 25,100 km2 of suitable areas, respectively, with potential payback periods as low as 12.2 years and 14.0 years. Queensland's northern coastal regions also show promise with a potential payback period of 13.4 years, but the suitable area is only 2,070 km2 due to the marine protection areas in the eastern coastal zone. New South Wales faces hurdles due to topography and lower solar resources. Model results were consistent with the development of CSP installations in Australia, particularly, the Aurora facility in South Australia. This study provides a precise delineation of CSP-MED integration regions in Australia through the multi-dimensional analysis, offering insights into payback periods, and quantifying variable impacts on project geographical, technical, and economic feasibility.

Occurrence of plastic additives in coral-reef invertebrates on natural and plastic substrates

Numerous studies have investigated the occurrence of plastic additives in marine biota. Yet, their main vector of transfer into organisms tissues remains unknown. We explored seven common additives in benthic coral reef invertebrates residing on natural/plastic substrates in a protected marine reserve versus an unprotected reef to ascertain whether additives transfer by substrate leaching. Samples of three coral-reef species were extracted and analyzed by GCMS and HPLC. Of the seven chemical additives investigated, dibenzylamine and bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate were detected. No significant association was found between additives and substrate type, possibly because these plastics have been submerged for years, and the majority of additives within them have leached. The marine reserve had fewer samples with additives, highlighting the importance of active management. Understanding the transfer vectors of plastic additives into biota is essential for assessing the risk they pose and devising effective management tools for protecting coral reefs.

Community engagement in coral reef restoration in the Seaflower MPA, Colombia

Community engagement has been identified as a key component for successful conservation efforts. According to community members, key stakeholders, and coral reef restoration practitioners in the Seaflower Marine Protected Area (MPA), the most effective way to engage communities in coral reef restoration is by building local capacity. We used a mixed‐methods approach including interviews, strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats analysis, and surveys to assess strategies employed in the Seaflower MPA to involve local communities in coral reef restoration and the motivations and possible barriers that hinder community engagement. The community residing in the Seaflower MPA demonstrated awareness of the importance of coral reefs and their role in their livelihoods. They identified the main challenges to restoration as social dysfunctionality, administrative barriers, and environmental threats, along with a lack of opportunities for the community to participate in coral reef restoration. Our findings identified building trust, promoting equity, transparency, and accountability, fostering collaboration, and improving communication as essential to overcoming these challenges. Empowering local communities through capacity‐building initiatives such as educational programs, economic incentives, equity and inclusion measures, formal certifications, and local leadership would enhance support for coral reef restoration in the Seaflower MPA. In addition to building local capacity, our research identified the need for strategic planning, budgeting, and effective policies for enhancing community efforts in coral reef restoration.

Economic impacts at the county level of marine protected areas designation in China

Designating protected areas to balance environmental conservation and economic development is a widely debated issue. Evaluating the economic impacts of protected areas designation offers solutions to this challenge, and studying the economic impacts of China's marine protected areas (MPAs) holds particular significance due to their predominant location along the economically developed eastern coast of China. Treating MPAs designation as a quasi-natural experiment, it is analyzed using a multi-period difference-in-differences (DID) model based on the panel data of coastal counties during 2000–2021. The results consistently inform that China's MPAs designation has negative impacts on the economic development of coastal counties, and these negative economic impacts can accumulate over time. Mediator tests show that MPAs designation significantly hampers the improvement of the local industrial structure, which partially explains the negative economic impacts. This indicates that after the designation of MPAs in coastal counties, there is an opportunity cost in terms of economic development, highlighting the need for ecological compensation for the designation of MPAs in coastal counties. Additionally, the extent of the negative impacts varies depending on the location of the MPAs, with MPAs in the North Sea producing the biggest impacts and those in the South Sea the least. This suggests that priority should be given to the South Sea in selecting marine national parks to achieve a balance between economic and conservation objectives. The study effectively quantified the negative impact of MPAs on economic development within a novel context. The findings offer valuable insights for addressing the broader conflict between environmental protection and economic development.

Fishery Management Enforcement Gradients to Achieve Fishery Goals

Marine protected areas (MPAs) can allow some fish populations to rebuild within their borders in areas impacted by overfishing, but the effectiveness of reserves is highly dependent on how effectively fishing mortality is controlled, which in turn depends on the level of fishery management implementation. In Cuba’s Gardens of the Queen MPA, the largest in the Caribbean, a variety of fishery management measures have been implemented to ensure the social, economic, and political viability of protecting such a large area. Here, we evaluate the biological response, in terms of fish density and the biomass of commercially valuable and ecologically important reef fish species, to a spatial gradient of fishery management enforcement, in terms of fish density and biomass, of commercially valuable and ecologically important reef fish species. The enforcement gradient is characterized by the level of protection, fishing effort, patrolling effort, distance to the nearest fishing port, and fishing intensity. Fish density and biomass were estimated from visual scuba surveys. Areas with higher levels of enforcement support higher levels of average biomass (up to 1378 kg/ha) and density (up to 2367 indv./ha) of commercially important fishes in comparison to areas with very low or no enforcement (estimates of 757 kg/ha average biomass and 1090 indv./ha average density, respectively). These fish density and biomass levels can serve as proxies in the development of harvest control rules that adjust fishing pressure according to the ratio of fished density or biomass to unfished density or biomass, through the use of the MPA Density Ratio method.

Marine spatial planning for socio‐ecological management of animal‐associated microbiomes

AbstractBiodiversity changes and habitat shifts are two phenomena substantially reshaping marine life on our present and future planet. Although those phenomena are well recognized on the macrobial level, they currently do not receive similar attention on the microbial level. Generally, microbiome diversity and function, associated with and governing the health and fitness of their host organisms, are neglected in conservation efforts. This is especially problematic as previous research has highlighted that host‐associated microbes (microbiomes) may display distribution patterns that are not only correlated with host animal biogeographies but also with other factors such as prevailing environmental conditions. Here, marine spatial planning for socio‐ecological management of animal‐associated microbiomes is discussed, using deep‐sea sponge and coral‐associated microbiomes as an example of how to incorporate microbial diversity into conservation planning. We advocate for a holistic and integrative approach to marine spatial planning that incorporates the larger habitat, the host, the microbiome, as well as the socio‐economic and cultural perspective, throughout the whole decision‐making process. A general workflow containing the needed steps to establish microbiome‐integrated marine protected areas is presented, as well as the analytical steps and results underlying the implementation of the world's first microbiome‐considered marine conservation network on the Scotian Shelf off eastern Canada.

A practical approach to meeting national obligations for sustainable trade under CITES.

Reconciling conservation goals with sustainable resource use requires adaptive management strategies. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) regulates global trade for species listed on Appendix II, partly by requiring member countries (parties) to ensure exports do not damage wild populations (called making positive "nondetriment findings" [NDFs]). Unfortunately, when parties find NDFs difficult, they often suspend legal trade, imposing economic costs and driving trade underground. To make it easier for parties to examine the detrimental nature of exports, we devised a spatial approach and applied it to seahorses (Hippocampus spp.) in Tamil Nadu, India, as an example. Our approach involves mapping answers to 5 key questions on species distribution (QA), pressures (QB), management measures (QC), management implementation (QD), and species' population status (QE). We gathered data from fisher interviews and published literature. Seahorse abundance was greatest in southern Palk Bay and the northern Gulf of Mannar, primarily in seagrasses and coral reefs (QA). Fishing pressure was highest in Palk Bay, primarily from bottom trawlers and dragnetters operating in shallow seahorse habitats near the coastline (QB). Management measures including a marine protected area (MPA), bottom trawl exclusion zone, and closed season were theoretically in place (QC), but their implementation was poor (QD). Fishers reported seahorse catches in 85% of the area covered by the MPA and the exclusion zone; bottom trawlers were responsible for most violations. Seahorses were also captured in Sri Lankan waters, where bottom trawling is banned. Fisher reports indicated declining seahorse catches and reduced body sizes (QE), highlighting unsustainable exploitation. Our results highlight the need for better implementation of existing management measures before a positive NDF can be made and suggest mitigation beyond bans. Such pragmatic spatial analyses can help regulate exports at sustainable levels, supporting CITES implementation for its vast range of species.