Marine Park Research Articles

Stereo-ROV surveys of tropical reef fishes are comparable to stereo-DOVs with reduced behavioural biases

Cumulative anthropogenic impacts such as overfishing, and climate change are placing marine ecosystems under increasing pressure. This includes the loss or degradation of marine habitats and reductions in fish stocks, with conservation and fisheries management strategies aiming to mitigate, or reverse the effects. Measuring the effectiveness of management actions on fish requires accurate data on the abundance and size of fishes. Diver operated stereo-video systems (stereo-DOVs) have become a widely accepted method for surveying reef fish but have known biases and constraints. A new generation of small and affordable remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) can carry a stereo-video system to collect reef fish data without the need for divers. However, before ROVs are adopted there is a need to understand how they compare to other conventional survey methods. We compared how stereo-DOVs and stereo-ROVs influenced fish behaviour and sampled coral reef fish assemblages inside and outside sanctuary zones in the Ningaloo Marine Park, Northern Western Australia. In general, the numbers of species, individuals and the assemblage composition did not differ significantly between survey techniques and detected consistent patterns in the assemblage composition across locations and inside and outside sanctuary zones. Both methods recorded similar proportions of length measurements (68% and 70% for stereo-DOV and stereo-ROV respectively). Fishes were significantly more wary and exhibited more flight responses towards stereo-DOVs when compared to stereo-ROVs. The use of ROVs has the potential to be a cost-effective method of surveying reef fish while eliminating the health and safety risks involved with SCUBA diving. Given the comparable metrics as well as reduced behavioural bias and logistical advantages of using stereo-ROVs, we recommend stereo-ROVs as a viable alternative to stereo-DOVs surveys.

Integration of strategic planning and air connectivity in tourism development

The problem of the paper focused on the role of the integration of strategic planning for tourism development and air transport connectivity is integral to advancing Indonesia’s tourist destinations with world-class marine park attractions spread across several eastern provinces that have not been visited by tourists optimally. They were relying on opening flight paths connected to the main entrances to Jakarta and Bali airports. This research aims to uncover and analyze the strategic planning of tourism development in Sulawesi Utara Province. A mixed method was used in research that adopted the model of Golkar (2005) with 96 questionnaires to officials of the tourism office, airport authorities, and airlines. An analysis using a four-dimensional SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) analysis (Mercer, 1991). The findings show that the accessibility of air transportation for tourist visits is limited and is not integrated with the flight paths of tourists. Tourism development planning in Sulawesi Utara Province tends to be partial and not consider critical variables. Such as the development of air transport infrastructure to open access to tourist destinations that are difficult to reach by land and sea transportation. Contribution to the theory and managerial implications are discussed, and suggestions for further research are given.

Fostering Sustainable Community-Based Tourism in Marine and Coastal Regions: Examining the Influence of Destination Social Responsibility on Environmentally Responsible Behavior, Mediated by Destination Image

The study aims to explores the impact of Destination Social Responsibility (DSR) and Destination Image (DI) on Environmentally Responsible Behaviour (ERB)-based tourism. This study collected data using the convenience sampling method, specifically through a survey administered to residents in a community of marine parks. Initially, a total of 300 questionnaires were distributed, resulting in the return of 200 completed surveys. After removing incomplete surveys, a total of 195 usable questionnaires have been included in the analysis.Given that the study employed composite measures and focused on predictive as well as explanatory purposes, the researchers utilized Partial Least Squares-Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM 4) to test the developed model. Moreover, the findings suggest that DSR positively influenced both ERB and DI. However, DI did not significantly impact ERB and did not act as a mediator between DSR as well as ERB. The findings show the local population’s involvement entails mitigating detrimental environmental impacts in coastal and marine areas.The local community, as a key stakeholder in a tourism destination, plays a significant role in promoting sustainable tourism growth in the area.The study offers valuable insights for destination management organizations as well as stakeholders in formulating environmental policies to promote sustainable development in Redang’s community.

Assessment of Governance and Ecological Status of Terengganu Marine Park, Malaysia: Toward Marine Spatial Planning

Terengganu Marine Parks (TMP) is a 591.37 km2 marine protected area. TMP are popular tourist destinations that significantly generate revenue to the government and local businesses through tourism sector. However, the anthropogenic activities have contributed to TMP’s declining ecosystem health, particularly the coral reefs. Therefore, a sustainable ecosystem-based management is required to maintain the ecosystem. In this study, we identify issues related to the marine park’s governance, development on islands, tourist activities and coral health status in the TMP for assessing potential management strategy for conserving the ecosystem. The findings on management in TMP found that there is an overlapping in managing the marine park between the federal and state government. Unintegrated development to accommodate rising number of tourist and their activities in the marine parks are identified as the factors contributing towards degradation of the ecosystems. Relatively, reef areas close to these local pressures are in ‘poor’ condition, indicating that threats arising from the activities affecting the marine ecosystem. Hence, this study analyses the potentials in adopting Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) in the TMP for managing the conflict between user and the ecosystem. The Australian Great Barrier Reef Marine Park which applied the zoning of marine area is used as a benchmark to examine the best practices of MSP to govern the TMP. At present, we suggest using coral reef health status as an early alternative and best practice to provide different zoning criteria for strategic marine protected area (MPA) management for TMP.

Preliminary result of population structure of reef fishes in coral reef restoration sites in Tun Sakaran Marine Park, Semporna, Sabah

Restoration of coral reefs at the Tun Sakaran Marine Park (TSMP) started in 2009. Various methods are adopted, although the Coral Frame method is preferred mainly due to the low maintenance cost and its durability, and is currently still being used. However, since the beginning of its deployment, there has been little study on the effectiveness of the coral restoration project. Thus, this study was conducted to determine the population structure of indicator coral reef fish around the coral frames. Two study sites (Site 1: Bohey Dulang; Site 2: Mantabuan) with existing coral frames within the TSMP were selected. At each site, a baited remote underwater video system ( BRUVS), was deployed, and each was set to capture approximately one-hour footage. The first BRUVS deployment of this 24-month project was made on 21 July 2020, during the peak of the Southwest Monsoon. A total of 20 families (32 species) and 19 families (42 species) were recorded at Site 1 and Site 2, respectively. The Small-tooth whiptail, Pentapodus caninus (MaxN:14) and fusilier, Caesio sp. (MaxN: 101) are the most abundant species at Site 1 and Site 2, respectively. The preliminary findings reveal a low abundance and diversity counts of indicator reef fish (Serranidae, Labridae, Scaridae and Lutjanidae) at the coral restoration sites within TSMP. However, it is suspected that opportunistic local fishermen try their luck to fish in restricted parts of the park (pers. Observ.), while local fishermen try to play the game of 'mouse and cat' with the Park's Law Enforcement.

Gender roles in the Anchovies Food Supply Chain – Bagang System in Mempakad Laut, North Borneo, Malaysia

This article examines the roles of gender in the Bagang system, an organisation of the anchovy supply chain in Mempakad Laut, Sabah, Malaysia bordering the Marine Protected Area named Tun Mustapha Marine Park. Gender study on marine ecosystem management is important to understand the involvement of men and women specifically on how they are complementing each other in ensuring effective resource management. This exploratory study was obtained via qualitative approach as the data collections method including Focus Group Discussion (FGD), interviews as well as field observation. A total of 30 informants participated in this study which were selected through purposive sampling and snowball sampling method. Findings reveal that men and women are equally important in the Bagang system. Men work on marine affairs and material development, while women work on product processing and marketing. The contribution of women in the sustainability of the Bagang system was significantly visible and was treated equally in most aspects notably in financial management and in the decision-makings from the initial to the end of the anchovy supply chain. These findings are very important as guidelines to plan a better sustainable marine management for the future and a fine example of how sustainable fisheries can be achieved in supporting the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals No. 5 which is gender equality.

Conceptual frameworks and key questions for assessing the contribution of marine protected areas to shark and ray conservation.

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are key tools in addressing the global decline of sharks and rays, and marine parks and shark sanctuaries of various configurations have been established to conserve shark populations. However, assessments of their efficacy are compromised by inconsistent terminology, lack of standardized approaches to assess how MPAs contribute to shark and ray conservation, and ambiguity about how to integrate movement data in assessment processes. We devised a conceptual framework to standardize key terms (e.g., protection, contribution, potential impact, risk, threat) and used the concept of portfolio risk to identify key attributes of sharks and rays (assets), the threats they face (portfolio risk), and the specific role of MPAs in risk mitigation (insurance). Movement data can be integrated into the process by informing risk exposure and mitigation through MPAs. The framework is operationalized by posing 8 key questions that prompt practitioners to consider the assessment scope, MPA type and purpose, range of existing and potential threats, species biology and ecology, and management and operational contexts. Ultimately, MPA contributions to shark and ray conservation differ according to a complex set of human and natural factors and interactions that should be carefully considered in MPA design, implementation, and evaluation.

Australia, Western Australia, Ningaloo Marine Park, Indian Ocean Coast

Australia, Western Australia, Ningaloo Marine Park, Indian Ocean Coast

Broad distribution of spider-shaped lebensspuren along the Australian continental margin

During feeding and burrowing, many epibenthic and infaunal animals bioturbate sediments and form a range of traces called lebensspuren (German for ‘life traces’), defined as any type of sedimentary structure produced by a living organism. During a 2020 survey along western Australia in the Gascoyne Marine Park, a distinct trace was observed several times, identical to the ‘spider trace’ observed in a 2007 survey along eastern Australia, over 4000 km away. The purpose of this brief note is to document and describe the occurrence of this unique and distinctive type of lebensspuren and to discuss ways in which similar observations may be effectively shared to increase our understanding of deep-sea biology.

Enhancing UAV images to improve the observation of submerged whales using a water column correction method

Enhancing <scp>UAV</scp> images to improve the observation of submerged whales using a water column correction method

Thirty-Eight Years of Loggerhead Turtle Nesting in Laganas Bay, Zakynthos, Greece: A Review

Here we present 38 yrs of nesting data of the loggerhead population in Laganas Bay, Zakynthos, Greece, adding data for 2010–2021 to existing published data for 1984–2009. This rookery, encompassing 6 discrete beaches of 5.5 km total length, features the highest nesting density in the Mediterranean. The annual nest numbers, ranging from 667 to 2018, showed no significant long-term trend. Beach nesting contributions increased on some public-accessed beaches (as did nesting success), but decreased on a remote beach that previously held > 50% of all nests. These changes might be attributed to management actions by the National Marine Park of Zakynthos that improved conditions for sea turtles (e.g., restricting nighttime access to the public), indicating that the previously recorded high nesting density on the remote beach may have been atypical. Although no significant phenological changes were detected with the available data in the 20-yr period 2002–2021, the date of the first hatched nest shifted significantly toward earlier dates in the 38-yr data set. Clutch size and body size of nesting turtles exhibited significantly decreasing trends. Hatching success, hatchling emergence success, and in-nest hatchling mortality showed significantly increasing trends. The number of viable hatchlings decreased over the seasons, albeit not significantly, possibly a result of the decreasing clutch size. Incubation durations were revealed as shortening on all beaches, a potential sign of global warming, with a consequent suggested increase of female primary sex ratio. Continuation of this long-term monitoring program is expected to provide further insights in the reproductive traits of this regionally important loggerhead population.

Study of the Spatiotemporal Variability of Oceanographic Parameters and Their Relationship to Holothuria Species Abundance in a Marine Protected Area of the Mediterranean Using Satellite Imagery

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are designated to protect marine ecosystems and, among other things, to monitor climate variability, which in turn affects aquatic species. The aim of this study is to examine the contribution of remotely sensed data as an indication of Holothuria abundance, by investigating the spatiotemporal variability of physicochemical parameters. The study area is in the National Marine Park of Alonissos Northern Sporades, which is included in the NATURA 2000 network. Firstly, the abundance of Holothuria species was measured by scuba diving. At the same time, depth profiles of five physicochemical parameters (temperature, salinity, pH, dissolved oxygen and Chl-a) were recorded by CTD (conductivity, temperature, depth), a primary instrument used to determine the essential physical and chemicals properties of seawater column profiles in the coastal zone. The physicochemical variables examined are the most common environmental parameters with the highest impact on growth, reproduction, productivity and survival rate of sea cucumber species, affecting the availability of food sources. Analysis of this data allows us to identify parameters which are essential for their existence. The analysis showed that only temperature and Chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) could be useful for identifying the abundance. These two parameters are readily available from satellite data. Additionally, particulate organic carbon (POC) is essential for Holothuria’s existence. Consequently, a time series of satellite data products from Terra/MODIS sensor were utilized from 2000 to 2020 for sea surface temperature (SST), Chl-a and POC. The monthly temporal trend shows that the abundance could be justified in areas where the Holothuria presence has been established. Monthly spatiotemporal analysis shows that SST, Chl-a and POC availability, could be an indication of the differences in abundance recorded.

Multi-year effects of wildlife tourism on shark residency and implications for management

Wildlife tourism can assist species conservation through community-involvement and education, while contributing to regional economies. In the last decade, shark diving has become increasingly popular among wildlife tourists worldwide, including cage-diving with white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias). In Australia, birthplace of the white shark diving industry, an adaptive management framework has been developed to minimise potentially detrimental effects on white sharks. We monitored the residency of 135 white sharks using acoustic tracking over eight years (2013–2021) at the Neptune Islands Group Marine Park to assess the efficacy of management regulations put in place in 2012, which limited the number of operating boats to three and a maximum of five weekly days of activity. A sensitivity analysis was conducted to investigate possible differences in shark residency as a function of number of acoustic receivers used and their corresponding distances to long-term monitoring stations. Similar residency patterns were observed independently of the number of receivers used or their deployment locations, suggesting that the monitoring design was adequate to monitor shark residency. White shark yearly residency decreased following the implementation of new regulations in 2012 and returned to baseline levels by 2013–2014. Our results highlight that white shark residency can recover from tourism-related changes and showcase how adequately-developed and -implemented regulations can enable the successful management and long-term sustainability of one of the oldest shark tourism industries. This adaptative framework (problem identification, development and implementation of policies, efficacy monitoring and performance evaluation) is broadly applicable to management of other tourism industries.

How small is the big problem? Small microplastics

Particle size plays an important role in determining the behaviour, fate and effects of microplastics (MPs), yet little is known about MPs <300μm in aquatic environments. Therefore, we performed the first assessment of MPs in marine surface waters around the Whitsunday Islands region of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, Australia, to test for the presence of small MPs (50-300μm) in-situ. Using a modified manta net, we demonstrate that MPs were present in all marine surface water samples, with a mean sea surface concentration of 0.23±0.03 particles m-3. Microplastics were mainly blue, clear and black fibres and fragments, consisting of polyethylene terephthalate, high-density polyethylene and polypropylene plastic polymers. Tourism and marine recreation were considered the major contributing sources of MPs to surface waters around the Whitsunday Islands. Between 10 and 124 times the number of MPs exist in the 50μm-300μm size class, compared with the 1mm-5mm size range. This finding indicates that the global abundance of small MPs in marine surface waters is grossly underestimated and warrants further investigation. Research into the occurrence, characteristics and environmental fate of MPs <300μm is needed to improve our understanding of the cumulative threats facing valuable ecosystems due to this smaller, potentially more hazardous size class.

STRATEGY FOR ICM-BASED GEOTOURISM DEVELOPMENT: CASE STUDY OF THE OLELE MARINE PROTECTED AREA, INDONESIA

This research aims to develop a strategy for developing the Olele Marine Park area as a geotourism destination based on the principles of integrated coastal management (ICM). The analytical descriptive method was applied, and the analytical hierarchy process (AHP) was used as an analytical tool. This study found that education and elevating awareness levels are the main priority criteria that need to be evolved in determining alternative developments for the Olele Marine Park Area (OMPA). Furthermore, the AHP results are consistent across all criteria for determining the priority of the OMPA development model. The AHP conducted on ten criteria CRT01-CRT10 also illustrates that the development of the governance model (ALT4) is a top priority in the OMPA development. The ecology model (ALT3) can also be used as a secondary priority model with values that are not significantly different. The research findings are expected to provide priority recommendations that can be implemented by various relevant stakeholders, including local governments, industry, and local communities. Some proposed alternative models are also expected to be considered in designing a strategy for developing the OMPA as geotourism. The AHP method was used as the sole analysis method in this study, which is a limitation. As a result, additional research is expected to be able to more comprehensively adapt various analytical approaches. One of the research’s novelties is that it provides the first comprehensive study of the ICM strategy-based OMPA development strategy.

The effects of marine heatwaves on acute heat tolerance in corals.

Scleractinian coral populations are increasingly exposed to conditions above their upper thermal limits due to marine heatwaves, contributing to global declines of coral reef ecosystem health. However, historic mass bleaching events indicate there is considerable inter- and intra-specific variation in thermal tolerance whereby species, individual coral colonies and populations show differential susceptibility to exposure to elevated temperatures. Despite this, we lack a clear understanding of how heat tolerance varies across large contemporary and historical environmental gradients, or the selective pressures that underpin this variation. Here we conducted standardised acute heat stress experiments to identify variation in heat tolerance among species and isolated reefs spanning a large environmental gradient across the Coral Sea Marine Park. We quantified the photochemical yield (Fv /Fm ) of coral samples in three coral species, Acropora cf humilis, Pocillopora meandrina, and Pocillopora verrucosa, following exposure to four temperature treatments (local ambient temperatures, and + 3°C, +6°C and + 9°C above local maximum monthly mean). We quantified the temperature at which Fv /Fm decreased by 50% (termed ED50) and used derived values to directly compare acute heat tolerance across reefs and species. The ED50 for Acropora was 0.4-0.7°C lower than either Pocillopora species, with a 0.3°C difference between the two Pocillopora species. We also recorded 0.9°C to 1.9°C phenotypic variation in heat tolerance among reefs within species, indicating spatial heterogeneity in heat tolerance across broad environmental gradients. Acute heat tolerance had a strong positive relationship to mild heatwave exposure over the past 35 years (since 1986) but was negatively related to recent severe heatwaves (2016-2020). Phenotypic variation associated with mild thermal history in local environments provides supportive evidence that marine heatwaves are selecting for tolerant individuals and populations; however, this adaptive potential may be compromised by the exposure to recent severe heatwaves.

Quantifying Catch Rates, Shark Abundance and Depredation Rate at a Spearfishing Competition on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia.

Simple SummaryCatch-per-unit-effort at a spearfishing competition in North Queensland, Australia was 1.25 fish per hour. Citizen scientists reported 358 sharks comprising of 10 species/groups, with 3.11 sharks observed per hour. Twelve percent of all sharks sighted in this study were regarded as potentially dangerous to humans. This is the first scientific study of shark depredation for spearfishing. C. amblyrhynchos were primarily responsible for depredation, with 5.9% of speared fish taken. Sixty percent of interviewees perceived that shark numbers have increased in the past 10 years.We developed and applied a method to quantify spearfisher effort and catch, shark interactions and shark depredation in a boat-based recreational spearfishing competition in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in Queensland. Survey questions were designed to collect targeted quantitative data whilst minimising the survey burden of spearfishers. We provide the first known scientific study of shark depredation during a recreational spearfishing competition and the first scientific study of shark depredation in the Great Barrier Reef region. During the two-day spearfishing competition, nine vessels with a total of 33 spearfishers reported a catch of 144 fish for 115 h of effort (1.25 fish per hour). A subset of the catch comprised nine eligible species under competition rules, of which 47 pelagic fish were weighed. The largest fish captured was a 34.4 kg Sailfish (Istiophorus platypterus). The most common species captured and weighed was Spanish Mackerel (Scomberomorus commerson). The total weight of eligible fish was 332 kg and the average weight of each fish was 7.1 kg. During the two-day event, spearfishers functioned as citizen scientists and counted 358 sharks (115 h effort), averaging 3.11 sharks per hour. Grey Reef Sharks (Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos) comprised 64% of sightings. Nine speared fish were fully depredated by sharks as spearfishers attempted to retrieve their catch, which equates to a depredation rate of 5.9%. The depredated fish included four pelagic fish and five reef fish. The shark species responsible were Grey Reef Shark (C. amblyrhynchos) (66%), Bull Shark (Carcharhinus leucas) (11%), Whitetip Reef Shark (Triaenodon obesus) (11%) and Great Hammerhead (Sphyrna mokarran) (11%). There were spatial differences in fish catch, shark sightings and rates of depredation. We developed a report card that compared average catch of fish, sightings of sharks per hour and depredation rate by survey area, which assists recreational fishers and marine park managers to assess spatio-temporal changes. The participating spearfishers can be regarded as experienced (average 18 days a year for average 13.4 years). Sixty percent of interviewees perceived that shark numbers have increased in the past 10 years, 33% indicated no change and 7% indicated shark numbers had decreased. Total fuel use of all vessels was 2819 L and was equivalent to 6.48 tons of greenhouse gas emissions for the competition.

Multidecadal changes in fish composition and traits diversity in a marine park in the Gulf of California

Multidecadal changes in fish composition and traits diversity in a marine park in the Gulf of California

Unveiling deep-sea habitats of the Southern Ocean-facing submarine canyons of southwestern Australia

Here we present the outcomes of the first deep-sea remotely operated vehicle study of previously unexplored submarine canyon systems along the southwest Australian continental margin. This was conducted around: (1) the Bremer Marine Park; (2) the Mount Gabi seamount and nearby slope-shelf margin at the interface of the Southern and Indian oceans; with new information from (3) the Perth Canyon Marine Park located in the SE Indian Ocean. These canyons differ from many explored around the world in having no connectivity to continental river systems, thus little detrital input, with the Bremer systems and Mount Gabi facing the Southern Ocean which plays a key role in the global ocean circulation and climate systems. Such studies in the vast deep waters around the Australian continent are rare given the lack of local ROV capability available for research, thus little is known about these environments.Using the resources of the Schmidt Ocean Institute, we characterised the submarine topography from high-resolution bathymetric mapping, geology, physical and chemical oceanography, and provide an overview of these environments including the fauna observed and collected. We show that these Southern Ocean-influenced environments incorporate South Indian Central Water, Subantarctic Mode Water, Antarctic Intermediate Water, and Upper and Lower Circumpolar Deep Water, with Antarctic Bottom Water present in deep water just south of the Bremer canyon systems. The richness in megabenthos, especially along the steep, rocky substrates of the canyon heads and walls around the Bremer canyon systems, contrasts to the comparatively depauperate fauna of the more northerly Perth Canyon. Various corals serve as important substrates for a range of other species and often exhibit particular faunal associations. Especially notable are distinct ecological zones including a bryozoan and sponge-dominated (animal) forest on the shelf edge, spectacular coral gardens along canyon margins, and the occurrence of solitary scleractinians well below the aragonite saturation horizon. Subfossil coral deposits were discovered across all three study areas, reflecting periodic waxing and waning of deep-water Scleractinia throughout this southwest region. Extensive pre-modern assemblages at Mount Gabi contrast markedly with the sparse populations of living species and suggest that it might have once been a major coral hotspot, or whether they reflect long-term coral aggregations is yet to be determined. Nevertheless, stark differences in both living and past coral distribution patterns across our study sites point to at least localised fluctuations in Southern Ocean-derived nutrient and/or oxygen supplies to these deep-sea communities.

A regional and international framework for evaluating seagrass management and conservation

Seagrass meadows provide a range of key ecosystem services that are of high economic and societal value; seagrass meadows enhance biodiversity, provide food security through fisheries support, and are increasingly recognised for the role they play in mitigating climate change by the process of carbon sequestration. Whilst there is an increasing understanding of the global significance of seagrass habitats, the extent of these habitats is declining globally. The requirement to implement effective seagrass conservation and management strategies is thus becoming increasingly important. If the ambitions of the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the Sustainable Development Goals are to be achieved, then nations need ambitious and applicable marine conservation plans. This includes management and protection to vulnerable ecosystems such as seagrass meadows. This study aims to evaluate a range of seagrass management and conservation approaches identified in different geographic regions, using a critique framework developed from the United Nations Environment Programme 2020 report on seagrass “Out Of The Blue: The Value Of Seagrasses To The Environment And To People’. Using the framework, seagrass management in Scotland is used as a case study and compared nationally to the rest of the UK (England, Wales and Northern Ireland) and internationally, to Europe (Wadden Sea), Australia (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park) and West Africa (Senegal). The results identify potential areas of development in Scotland to enhance its seagrass conservation effort, including increased research in seagrass science, widespread mapping of seagrass, long-term monitoring programmes, improved marine protected areas, inclusion of seagrass protective measures into environmental laws and policies and the implementation of appropriate habitat restoration schemes. The results also identify the need for open data if effective knowledge sharing is to take place, and to ensure that ocean science can fully support countries to achieve the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.