Marine Park Research Articles

Assessment of the impact of microplastic ingestion in striped red mullets from an Eastern Mediterranean coastal area (Zakynthos Island, Ionian Sea)

Monitoring microplastics (MPs) in the marine environment is an ongoing process, and our understanding of their impact on marine organisms is limited. The present study evaluates the effects of ingested MPs on the marine MP pollution bioindicator fish species Mullus surmuletus. The study follows a three-fold approach to assess the impact of MPs on marine organisms by investigating: 1) the ingestion of MPs, 2) the bioaccumulation of phthalate compounds as plastic additives, and 3) the evaluation of toxicological biochemical and cellular biomarkers. Striped red mullets were sampled in the marine protected area (MPA) of the National Marine Park of Zakynthos and coastal sites with high touristic pressure in Zakynthos Island in the Ionian Sea, Greece. Fewer ingested MPs and lower phthalate concentrations were found in fish inside the MPA compared to those sampled outside the marine park. However, no relationship was found between either phthalate concentrations or biomarker levels with the ingested MPs in the red striped mullets. Biomarker levels were influenced by season and site, but no effect could be attributed to the ingested MPs. The lack of association of biomarker responses and plasticizer bioaccumulation to MP ingestion can be explained by the low number of ingested MPs in the fish from Zakynthos coastal area as MP abundance ranged from 0.15 to 0.55 items per individual fish.

Intensive temporal and spatial sampling of polychaete biodiversity reveals significant implications for impact assessment and marine park design

Abstract Intensive temporal and spatial sampling of benthic infauna have rarely been analysed to improve impact assessment or conservation planning. An impact assessment started in the late 1980s in Jervis Bay (Australia) provided a spatially, temporally and taxonomically comprehensive benthic invertebrate dataset. While the proposed development did not eventuate, the area was later declared a multi‐zone marine park. We specifically used the polychaete data which included nine sampling times (February 1989 to June 1991) in seagrass and unvegetated sediments across multiple sites to identify ecological patterns that could inform current and future conservation management and impact assessment. The polychaete assemblage was diverse with 171 species, many of them rare (40% < 10 individuals). Variation was greatest at small spatial scales (metres) for abundances and diversity, and there was substantial spatio‐temporal variation due to inconsistent site differences. Most species occurred in both unvegetated and seagrass sediments, though several were more abundant or restricted to one habitat (39% and 3% only found in unvegetated or seagrass, respectively), or showed bathymetric differences in abundances (e.g., Eunice cultrifera and Lumbrineris cf. latrelli). The current marine park zoning representatively covered polychaete biodiversity, as all sites were generally similar in terms of abundances and species richness. It also representatively covered seagrass and unvegetated sediments and the bathymetric range of the embayment. These findings reinforce the utility of using habitats as surrogates to representatively zone for biological diversity. The high levels of spatial and spatio‐temporal variation in abundances and diversity only allowed detection of environmental impacts with >70% effect sizes even if numerous sites and times were sampled (i.e., > seven sites and > eight times). This suggests that most univariate measures for polychaetes would only be useful to detect enormous effects, and effective impact assessment might require more sophisticated multivariate approaches.

Travel patterns and multi-destinations of visitors: Toward marine park management strategies

Understanding visitor movements within Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) is crucial for their management. This study identifies the choice of destination and heterogeneity of visitors to Hikkaduwa National Park (HNP) in Sri Lanka and explores how this information could be used to inform MPA management. Face-to-face interviews were completed with 241 visitor groups. Results revealed that single-destination visits were undertaken by 70.1% of survey respondents, with 29.9% multi-destination visits. The trip duration, group size, distance between origin and first destination, and recreation time influenced multi-destination visits. Visits also varied based on the frequency of visits, length of stay, and on-site recreation diversity. The findings of this study suggest improving available multiple recreational opportunities to ensure the viability of destination, and recreation in HNP should be managed sustainably to promote recovery of the degraded coral reef and to ensure the long-term survival of the marine ecosystem while increasing contribution to the economy.

Kepadatan Megabentos pada Wilayah Konservasi Perairan di Sekitar Kabupaten Kupang, Nusa Tenggara Timur, Indonesia

The Sawu Sea National Marine Park is a marine conservation area in East Nusa Tenggara Province that is known for its high marine biodiversity. The coral reef ecosystem in this conservation area is home to ecologically and economically important megabenthic organisms. Megabenthos are important regulators of marine ecosystems, acting as indicators of coral reef health. However, information on the types and densities of megabenthos in this conservation area is scarce. Research on megabenthos is critical for assessing coral reef health and informing conservation strategies. The aim of this study is to collect baseline data on megabenthos in the Sawu Sea National Marine Park waters surrounding West Kupang and Semau. The Benthic Belt Transect method was used to collect data at six locations throughout the marine park. The information was examined for species composition and density. To assess differences and relationships between locations and megabenthic categories, statistical tests such as Kruskal-Wallis and Pearson's correlation, as well as the Morisita index, were used. Four of the eight target megabenthic categories were identified in the study, with blue starfish and giant clams being the most abundant. There was no statistically significant difference in megabenthic density across locations or ecological and economic categories. The research uncovered potential habitat preferences among various megabenthic categories. The presence and distribution of megabenthos in the waters of this marine park provide important information about the health of coral ecosystems. These findings can help guide conservation efforts.

Tropical seamounts as stepping-stones for coral reef fishes: range extensions and new regional distributions from mesophotic ecosystems in the Coral Sea, Australia

Seamounts and remote oceanic islands serve as valuable natural laboratories in which to study patterns and processes in marine biodiversity. A central hypothesis arising from studies of these systems is the ecological function of seamounts as stepping-stones for dispersal and population connectivity. Evidence of this mechanism exists for a range of taxa, including coral reef fishes, but is still lacking from many tropical seamounts in remote regions. In this study, we used remotely operated vehicles and baited remote underwater video systems to survey fish and benthic communities between 1 and 100 m on seamounts in the Coral Sea Marine Park (CSMP), Australia. We found evidence to support the stepping-stone model of ecological connectivity from new observations of 16 coral reef fishes which have previously not been recorded by quantitative surveys in the region. The widespread distribution of many of these species throughout the full latitudinal extent of the CSMP suggests that there is greater connectivity between mesophotic habitats in the Coral Sea and surrounding biogeographic regions than previously known. We also found a wide variety of mesophotic habitats and recorded significant depth range extensions for 78 fishes in these habitats. This further highlights the potential role of increased habitat area and heterogeneity in a stepping-stone effect throughout the region. Four of the fish occurrence records represent significant range extensions into the Coral Sea from adjacent biogeographic regions, and 13 fishes recorded by this study in the CSMP are not known from the neighbouring Great Barrier Reef, despite its close proximity. Although the Coral Sea remains relatively understudied, these findings suggest that larger-scale models of marine biogeography are relevant to communities in the region, particularly at mesophotic depths. Given the extent and the spatial arrangement of seamounts in the Coral Sea, our findings emphasise that the region is an important link between the centre of marine biodiversity in the Coral Triangle and the Southwest Pacific. Greater mesophotic sampling effort and genetic studies are necessary to understand the nature of connectivity and to establish the role of regional seamount chains, like the Coral Sea reefs, in broader marine biogeographic processes.

Daily age, growth rate, and pelagic larval duration of commercially important snapper species in Abrolhos National Marine Park.

The age and daily growth of fish are registered through the deposition of increments in their otoliths, which are concretions formed by the precipitation of substances present in the endolymphatic fluid, mainly calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Faced with the need to fill some of the gaps in the knowledge on the occurrence and duration of the initial stages of snapper species' life cycles in the Abrolhos Bank, this study aimed to describe the growth rates, age, and period of pelagic larval duration (PLD) of three snapper species during the larval pre-settlement phase, in the Abrolhos Bank region. The post-larvae were captured using light traps. Otoliths were removed from 117 samples of snapper species; however, only 69 were viable for age estimation, of which 15 were Lutjanus analis, 25 were Lutjanus jocu, and 29 were Lutjanus synagris. Together, the samples presented individuals with total lengths ranging from 16.14 to 24.76 mm and ages from 21 to 39 days. Settlement marks were found for all three species, and the average PLD was ~25 days. The somatic growth of the snapper species was positively correlated with otolith growth. L. jocu presented the greatest daily growth compared to the other species. The three species use the Abrolhos Bank as a larval settlement site, demonstrating plasticity by using different habitats throughout their lives.

The Implementation of Integrated Coastal Management in the Development of Sustainability-Based Geotourism: A Case Study of Olele, Indonesia

The objective of this study is to examine the key determinants involved in formulating a sustainable plan for marine tourist development in the Olele Marine Park region with a specific focus on geotourism, guided by the principles of integrated coastal management (ICM). The current investigation employed descriptive analytical methodologies, utilizing interpretative structural modeling (ISM) as the selected analytical tool. The current research effectively accomplished the development of a spatial use zoning map inside the Olele Marine Park region with a specific focus on its use in the context of geotourism. This study posits that the incorporation of utilization zones, in addition to the existing core zones and sustainable fisheries, is vital for effective design. In addition, the findings of the ISM analysis also indicate that the development of the Olele Marine Park area encompasses a minimum of five elements. These elements consist of primary sub-elements and supporting sub-elements, which were deemed to be independent and exert significant driving forces. The findings of this study have practical implications for the government in formulating sustainable marine tourist development plans. These recommendations primarily focus on the concepts of ICM and are aimed at promoting geotourism.

Sociocultural valuation of human impacts on marine ecosystems: the case of the National Marine Park of Alonissos in Greece

ABSTRACT Conservation priority ecosystem components provide multiple ecosystem services. However, different human activities have placed significant pressures on marine ecosystems and the biodiversity they support, resulting in the degradation of the respective services. In the present study, we combine a choice experiment for the valuation of related ecosystem services with the Cumulative Impact Assessment method, to estimate the value of human impacts on three conservation priority habitats (the seagrass meadows, the gorgonian forests and the coralligenous reefs) of the National Marine Park of Alonissos Northern Sporades in Greece. The results indicate significant values and thus raise flags for more effective decisions related to environmental policies, such as the Programmes of Measures under the Marine Strategy Framework Directive.

Population Status and Colony Characteristics of Eleonora’s Falcon (Falco eleonorae) in the National Marine Park of Alonissos—Northern Sporades, Greece

Eleonora’s Falcon is the commonest bird of prey in Greece, with more than 80% of the global population breeding on Greek islands. The aim of this study was to assess the population status and the colony characteristics for the species in the National Marine Park of Alonissos—Northern Sporades. Every island was circumnavigated twice in order to count individual birds and active nests during the breeding season of the species in 2021 by boat. Colony characteristics including nest category, nest height above sea level and nest orientation were recorded. The species was recorded nesting in 13 (12 uninhabited and 1 inhabited) out of 29 islands involving a total of 329 active nests. Most nests were in cliff cavities located between 12 m and 400 m above sea level, and had predominantly north-westerly and westerly orientations. These findings may inform conservation management decisions including minimization of disturbance in colonies, safeguarding colonies under threats, eradicating invasive species and protecting and enhancing the breeding habitat of the species in the specially protected area of the National Marine Park of Alonissos—Northern Sporades.

Consequences of Juvenile Fish Movement and Seascape Connectivity: Does the Concept of Nursery Habitat Need a Rethink?

Estuarine and adjacent inshore habitats have long been recognised as important nursery areas for fishes before they disperse to coastal habitats. Assessing nursery function supports spatial and fisheries management, yet work commonly focusses on singular habitat types. Re-considering how juvenile fish connect habitats may improve our understanding of nursery function and the scales that recruits are supplied to coastal fisheries. This study quantified the juvenile movements of two harvested fishes in south-eastern Australia, luderick (Girella tricuspidata) and yellowfin bream (Acanthopagrus australis). Acoustic tags were used to track 33 luderick and 20 yellowfin bream from seagrass meadows for up to ~400 days in Jervis Bay Marine Park. Both species had relatively small home ranges (< 7 km2) and exhibited site attachment to seagrass meadows where they were released. Most luderick and yellowfin bream were detected moving 100’s metres to kilometres to reefs adjacent to seagrass, although these movements were not habitat shifts. Rather, reef-ward movements represented repeated visits that lasted days to months before fish returned to seagrass, suggesting that these movements may be explorations in search of suitable adult habitat. Strong retention within an existing marine reserve was observed, with only five of 33 fish tagged within reserves crossing the boundary into fished waters. Overall, our results demonstrate that juvenile fish use and connect multiple habitat types during their movements. These findings support the broadening of the nursery concept from single habitats to a mosaic of functionally connected habitat patches (dubbed ‘seascape nurseries’).

Geomorphometric maps of Australia’s Marine Park estate and their role in improving the integrated monitoring and management of marine ecosystems

The loss of marine biodiversity is a major global issue that needs to be prioritised. In Australia, a considerable proportion (48%) of its Exclusive Economic Zone is dedicated to marine protected areas. To effectively manage this network of marine protected areas Australia has recently introduced a Management Effectiveness system. This system is designed to identify, monitor, and manage natural values and the various activities and pressures affecting the Australian Marine Parks (AMPs). Key to this approach is the identification and accurate mapping of the location of these values and pressures acting on the seabed. The AusSeabed program is a national initiative in Australia aimed at improving access to bathymetric data and coordinating efforts to collect such data in Australian waters. This manuscript proposes a novel systematic processing method to create detailed and scalable geomorphometric maps from AusSeabed’s bathymetric data holdings, intended as a standard operating procedure for initial bathymetric data interpretation in the AMPs. Utilising this workflow, we produce seafloor geomorphometry maps across 37 AMPs within which sufficient bathymetric data has been collected. These maps can be used 1) for predictive mapping of biological assemblages; 2) in field sampling design for the collection of ‘ground truthing’ data (e.g. underwater imagery and sediment samples) to validate habitat maps from bathymetric datasets; and 3) as input datasets for subsequent geomorphological mapping with a deeper understanding of seafloor processes. This research highlights the importance of robust geomorphometry classification standards to ensure consistency in mapping Australia’s marine estate in preparation for the Decade of Oceans plans. The Seamap Australia program provides a stepwise approach to advancing Australia’s national collection of bathymetric data into derived products that can enable habitat mapping of Australian waters, providing a foundational tool for the adaptive management of AMPs.

Assessment of Marine Tourism Carrying Capacity: A Case Study at Kapas Island Marine Park, Malaysia

Assessment of Marine Tourism Carrying Capacity: A Case Study at Kapas Island Marine Park, Malaysia

Doubling the known diversity of a remote island fauna: marine bivalves of the Juan Fernández and Desventuradas oceanic archipelagos (Southeastern Pacific Ocean).

Juan Fernández and Desventuradas are two oceanic archipelagos located in the southeastern Pacific Ocean far off the Chilean coast that received protected status as marine parks in 2016. Remoteness and access difficulty contributed to historically poor biodiversity sampling and limited associated research. This is particularly noticeable for bivalves, with most prior regional publications focused on single taxa or un-illustrated checklists. This study investigates marine bivalves collected between the intertidal and 415 m depth during (1) the 1997 IOC97 expedition aboard the M/V Carlos Porter, with special focus on scuba-collected micro-mollusks of both archipelagos, (2) two expeditions by the R/V Anton Bruun (Cruise 12/1965 and Cruise 17/1966), and (3) Cruise 21 of USNS Eltanin under the United States Antarctic Program, which sampled at Juan Fernández in 1965. Also, relevant historical material of the British H.M.S. Challenger Expedition (1873-1876), the Swedish Pacific Expedition (1916-1917), and by German zoologist Ludwig H. Plate (1893-1895) is critically revised. A total of 48 species are recognized and illustrated, including 19 new species (described herein) and six other potentially new species. The presence of two species mentioned in the literature for the region (Aulacomya atra and Saccella cuneata) could not be confirmed. The genera Verticipronus and Halonympha are reported for the first time from the Eastern Pacific, as are Anadara and Condylocardia from Chilean waters. Lectotypes are designated for Arca (Barbatia) platei and Mytilus algosus. These findings double the number of extant bivalve species known from the Juan Fernández and Desventuradas archipelagos, highlighting the lack of attention these islands groups have received in the past. A high percentage of species endemic to one or both archipelagos are recognized herein, accounting for almost 78% of the total. The newly recognized level of bivalve endemism supports the consideration of Juan Fernández and Desventuradas as two different biogeographic units (Provinces or Ecoregions) of the Eastern Pacific Ocean.

Moving towards local participation and comanagement of Tioman Island Marine Park

Tioman Archipelago is a Marine Protected Area (MPA) off the coast of Pahang, Malaysia. It is inhabited by a small local population that depends on tourism as its main source of income. Its rich biodiversity is the main attraction to visitors, yet it is threatened by the growing tourism market. In 1994 the waters extending 3.7 km from the shore surrounding the island were gazetted as an MPA under the provisions of the Fisheries Act of 1985. The Department of Fisheries Malaysia (DoF) is responsible for the management and enforcement of the MPA, with minimal or no involvement of the local communities. A study conducted by Reef Check Malaysia (RCM) in 2014 with the local communities revealed that the vast majority showed an interest in being involved in management and conservation efforts but did not have the qualifications or the means to do so. In 2015, the Tioman Marine Conservation Group (TMCG) was formalized as a platform for interested local communities to undergo a series of training programs to empower them in building ecological resilience and marine resource management processes. The TMCG has since executed many conservation programs including ghost net removals, mooring buoy management, coral predator control, coral rehabilitation, reef monitoring surveys, community consultations, promotion of responsible tourism standards, and cleanups. RCM provided training, oversight, and funding. As of 2023, there are 80 members from each of the island’s seven villages. In 2019 the TMCG was officially recognized by the DoF as one of its strategic partners under its Reef Care program. This paper details how Tioman Island Marine Park moves from a top-down management approach towards local participation and a comanagement approach.

Main vegetation types and characteristics in Dongtou National Marine Park, Zhejiang, China

Main vegetation types and characteristics in Dongtou National Marine Park, Zhejiang, China

Adopting Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) using coral health assessment as indicator: A case study in Pulau Redang Marine Park, Malaysia

Pulau Redang is a marine park island that serves as one of Malaysian tourism hot spots harbouring clear underwater scenery of coral reef ecosystem. Apart from providing ecological services to marine organisms, this ecosystem appeal has contributed significantly to tourism development in Pulau Redang. Nonetheless, despite being gazetted as a marine protected area (MPA), the coral reef ecosystem surrounding the island is being threatened by natural and anthropogenic disturbances leading to coral degradation most predominantly in areas close to tourism development. Hence, this paper aims to identify the status of coral health in Pulau Redang as an indicator in supporting management decision to adopt Marine Spatial Planning as a tool for the conservation of reefs in the island. The coral reef datasets were obtained from published articles and a report as well as in-situ data collection through Coral Video Transect at two different areas classified as “near to tourism development” and “far from human activities”. Overall, based on published data and the present coral reef survey from 33 surveyed sites indicated that majority of the reefs can be classified as in ‘fair’ condition. However, reefs located in areas where there are intense human disturbances are found to be in ‘poor’ condition. It can be deduced that natural disturbances, such as the tropical storm in 2019, and anthropogenic activities from nearby tourism area are potentially threatening the coral reef. Therefore, an ecosystem-based and integrated management approach of Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) is recommended in order to conserve the environment, promote ecosystem recovery while maintaining the socio-economic development on the island.

Analyzing Community Perception of Protected Areas to Effectively Mitigate Environmental Risks Using Qualitative Comparative Analysis: The Case of Savu Sea National Marine Park, East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia

The Savu Sea holds significant importance as a conservation area in Indonesia that provides sustenance and livelihoods for local communities. However, the sea is currently facing various threats, including overfishing, pollution, and the impacts of climate change. Therefore, the effective management of this conservation area relies heavily on the active participation of local communities. This study aims to address the research question “What combination of variables leads to the positive outcome of strong participation and could thus mitigate environmental risk?” These variables include the socio-economic condition of coastal households, environmental awareness, the existence of community-based conservation areas, attitudes towards activities within the conservation area, and participation in multi-stakeholder institutions. This study employs the crisp-set Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) or csQCA methods. A survey was conducted among 22 coastal villages surrounding the Savu Sea, resulting in the identification of 14 different combinations of pathways that contribute to varying levels of perception regarding conservation. Of these 14 pathways, 10 were found to lead to the positive outcome of strong participation. Valuable lessons can be drawn from this study to enhance the design of policies aimed at effectively managing the Savu conservation area.

A data-driven approach to multiple-stressor impact assessment for a marine protected area.

The coastal environment is not managed in a way that considers the impact of cumulative threats, despite being subject to threats from all realms (marine, land, and atmosphere). Relationships between threats and species are often nonlinear; thus, current (linear) approaches to estimating the impact of threats may be misleading. We developed a data-driven approach to assessing cumulative impacts on ecosystems and applied it to explore nonlinear relationships between threats and a temperate reef fish community. We used data on water quality, commercial fishing, climate change, and indicators of recreational fishing and urbanization to build a cumulative threat map of the northern region in New South Wales, Australia. We used statistical models of fish abundance to quantify associations among threats and biophysical covariates and predicted where cumulative impacts are likely to have the greatest impact on fish. We also assessed the performance of no-take zones (NTZs), to protect fish from cumulative threats across 2 marine protected area networks (marine parks). Fishing had a greater impact on fish than water quality threats (i.e., percent increase above the mean for invertivores was 337% when fishing was removed and was 11% above the mean when water quality was removed inside NTZs), and fishing outside NTZs affected fish abundances inside NTZs. Quantifying the spatial influence of multiple threats enables managers to understand the multitude of management actions required to address threats.

Stable isotopes reveal sargassum rafts provide a trophic subsidy to juvenile pelagic fishes

Floating macroalgal rafts can form extensive habitat in coastal waters and support abundant and diverse communities of juvenile fishes. Rafts comprised predominantly of Sargassum spp. are common within the Ningaloo Coast World Heritage Area, Western Australia, and may be an important transitional habitat for pre-settlement coastal fishes. We had three aims: 1) to quantify the diversity and abundance of fishes associated with Sargassum rafts; 2) to use stable isotopes to determine whether fishes associating with rafts preyed on nearby plankton or on prey associated with Sargassum; and 3) to determine whether the food web fishes relied upon was ultimately supported by primary production of Sargassum or planktonic phytoplankton (measured as seston). Fishes and macroinvertebrates associating with Sargassum rafts, zooplankton, and seston were collected at six sites in the Ningaloo Marine Park and analysed for δ15N and δ13C, and the diets of the most common fishes were analysed using MixSIAR. Fishes were more abundant around macroalgal rafts than in open water. Eleven species of juvenile fishes associated with Sargassum rafts, with one species (Histrio histrio (Antennariidae)) represented by juveniles and adults. Four of the five fishes most sampled around Sargassum spp. rafts, (Abudefduf vaigiensis (Pomacentridae), Helotes sexlineatus (Terapontidae), Colurodontis paxmani (Monacanthidae) and Petroscirtes breviceps (Blenniidae)) had generalist diets whose food webs were ultimately supported by greater contributions of primary production from Sargassum spp. (55–72%) than planktonic seston. H. histrio was predominantly piscivorous but still derived most (64%) of its organic matter indirectly from Sargassum spp. Our results reveal the importance of Sargassum rafts as habitat that provides shelter and food for juvenile fishes and adult H. histrio. Moreover, the prevalence of juvenile fishes associating with Sargassum rafts highlights a bidirectional form of benthic-pelagic coupling whereby macroalgae that detach from the benthos provide habitat and a trophic subsidy for pelagic juvenile fishes before they the transition into benthic coastal habitats.

Mitigation of marine debris from land: Formulation of the best options for managing marine debris in the coastal city of Manado, Indonesia

Mitigation of marine debris in Manado City, the city which is situation in front of the Manado bay, is very important in order to prevent its effect on the coastal communities and as well as for the aesthetics point of view. That activities can directly protect the ecosystem of Bunaken Marine Park (BMP), and can become an important part of the marine waste management activities especially in supporting the commitment of Indonesian government to reducing plastic waste in the sea by 70% by 2025. For this reason, a marine waste management is needed and it should be prepared based on the academic study that are comprehensive and holistic as well as effective and efficient, and also suitable for environmental condition in Manado City. The study was aimed to formulate best options for the existing marine waste management in Manado City. By using qualitative-descriptive and content-analysis methods, four aspects of managemet were studied, and they are 1) public awareness, 2) institutional arrangements, 3) regulations, policies and management plans, and 4) waste management guidelines. The data obtained were quantitatively and qualitatively analyzed. The public awarenes was qualitatively analyzed by using two indicators, community concern and community preference. The existing marine waste management was presented based on studied aspects and the best option was proposed as recommendation for marine waste management in Manado City.