Marine Megafauna Research Articles

Evaluation of a long-term information tool reveals continued suitability for identifying bycatch hotspots but little effect on fisher location choice

Bycatch represents a critical threat to many marine megafauna species. Dynamic ocean management (DOM) has been proposed as means to reduce bycatch interactions but currently, most DOMs provide information products only. These products delineate spatiotemporal areas of high bycatch of specific species with the goal of helping fishers engage in self-directed avoidance. However, the efficacy of information-based DOMs depends on fishers' use and their incentives to do so. We reviewed one of the longest and earliest DOM informational products, TurtleWatch, which is a U.S. government program to provide information to help Hawai'i shallow set pelagic longline fishers avoid North Pacific loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) interactions based on a specific sea surface temperature band. Though TurtleWatch continues to identify a zone of higher interactions, fishers have not been incentivized to use the product. Further, the rate of interactions has increased since TurtleWatch's deployment in 2005, and fishers continued to operate within and closer to the recommended avoidance area as interaction limits were approached. This indicates that the interaction limit, which was shared among all fishers, may have created a common pool resource that disincentivizes individual fishers to avoid hotspots of loggerhead bycatch. As the majority of DOM relies on similar informational products and incentives, our findings suggest strong and appropriate incentives are needed for DOM to reduce bycatch.

A Preliminary Report of Plastic Ingestion by Hawksbill and Green Turtles in the Saudi Arabian Red Sea.

(1) Background: Plastic pollution is a major environmental concern confronting marine animals. Sea turtles are considered a bio-indicator of plastic pollution, but there is little information regarding plastic ingestion by turtles in the Red Sea. With large-scale development projects being built along the Saudi Arabian coast, it is important to have a baseline for plastic ingestion before construction is complete. (2) Methods: Ten deceased sea turtles (four hawksbill and six green turtles) were collected along the Saudi Arabian coastline. Necropsies were conducted, and the entire gastrointestinal tracts were extracted and the contents were passed through a 1 mm mesh sieve. (3) Results: We found that 40% of the turtles in this study had ingested plastics. Thread-like plastics were the most common plastic category, and multi-colored was the most prevalent color category. (4) Conclusions: Monitoring of the plastic ingestion by marine megafauna should be conducted as a long-term assessment of the developments' impacts. Additionally, conservation efforts should be focused on removing plastics (namely ghost nests and fishing lines) from the reefs and reducing the amount of plastic entering the sea.

Editorial: Tracking marine megafauna for conservation and marine spatial planning

Editorial: Tracking marine megafauna for conservation and marine spatial planning

Dose metric evaluation of a cell-based bioassay for assessing the toxicity of metals to Dugong dugon: Effect of metal-media interactions on exposure concentrations

Cell-based toxicity testing has emerged as a useful tool in (eco)toxicological research, allowing the ethical assessment of the effects of contaminants such as trace metals on marine megafauna. However, metal interactions with various dissolved ligands in the microplate environment may influence the effective exposure concentrations. Hence, the cells are not exposed to the nominal concentrations within the test system. This study aimed to establish and evaluate the effectiveness of cell-based bioassays for investigating the toxicity of selected metals in dugongs through the following objectives: (1) measure the cytotoxic potential of cadmium (Cd2+), and chromium (Cr6+) to dugong skin cell cultures, (2) investigate the interactions between media constituents and selected trace metals in cell-based bioassays, and (3) evaluate the risk to a free-ranging population of dugong based on effect values. Chromium was the most toxic of the metals tested (EC50 = 1.14 µM), followed by Cd (EC50 = 6.35 µM). Assessment of ultrafiltered (< 3 kDa) exposure media showed that 1% and 92.5% of Cr and Cd were associated with larger organic components of the media. Further, the binding of Cd to media constituents was calculated to underestimate Cd toxicity in cell-based assays by an order of magnitude. This understanding of metal partitioning in cell-based bioassays provides a more accurate method for assessing toxicity in cell-based bioassays. In addition, this study illustrated that dugong cells are more sensitive to Cr and Cd than other marine wildlife species. The chemical risk assessment found the dugong population in Moreton Bay to be at high risk from Cd exposure.

Effects of disease on foraging behaviour and success in an individual free-ranging northern elephant seal.

Evaluating consequences of stressors on vital rates in marine mammals is of considerable interest to scientific and regulatory bodies. Many of these species face numerous anthropogenic and environmental disturbances. Despite its importance as a critical form of mortality, little is known about disease progression in air-breathing marine megafauna at sea. We examined the movement, diving, foraging behaviour and physiological state of an adult female northern elephant seal (Mirounga angustirostris) who suffered from an infection while at sea. Comparing her to healthy individuals, we identified abnormal behavioural patterns from high-resolution biologging instruments that are likely indicators of diseased and deteriorating condition. We observed continuous extended (3-30minutes) surface intervals coinciding with almost no foraging attempts (jaw motion) during 2weeks of acute illness early in her post-breeding foraging trip. Elephant seals typically spend ~ 2minutes at the surface. There were less frequent but highly extended (30-200minutes) surface periods across the remainder of the trip. Dive duration declined throughout the trip rather than increasing. This seal returned in the poorest body condition recorded for an adult female elephant seal (18.3% adipose tissue; post-breeding trip average is 30.4%). She was immunocompromised at the end of her foraging trip and has not been seen since that moulting season. The timing and severity of the illness, which began during the end of the energy-intensive lactation fast, forced this animal over a tipping point from which she could not recover. Additional physiological constraints to foraging, including thermoregulation and oxygen consumption, likely exacerbated her already poor condition. These findings improve our understanding of illness in free-ranging air-breathing marine megafauna, demonstrate the vulnerability of individuals at critical points in their life history, highlight the importance of considering individual health when interpreting biologging data and could help differentiate between malnutrition and other causes of at-sea mortality from transmitted data.

Prey selection patterns of bottlenose dolphins depredating bottom-set gillnets in the northern Aegean Sea

Understanding the foraging strategies of marine megafauna that interact with fisheries is key to conflict mitigation. Bottlenose dolphins Tursiops truncatus in the northern Aegean Sea frequently depredate bottom-set nets, but whether they exhibit prey selection within depredation events remains unknown. We conducted 80 fishing trials over 2 seasons (2020 and 2021) using gillnets in the Thermaikos Gulf, and investigated patterns in the catch and gear damage to determine whether bottlenose dolphins target certain genera over others. A high preference index was calculated for demersal fish like Mullus and Trachurus, as well as less frequently occurring pelagic fishes like Sphyraena. We also found a strong indication that dolphins target certain sizes of fish in certain genera, namely the shorter specimens of larger fishes and the larger specimens of shorter fishes. In conjunction with the patterns in the vertical position of holes torn in the nets, our findings suggest that bottlenose dolphins take advantage of whichever fish are seasonally prevalent.

Who lives in the open sea? Distribution and densities of surfacing marine megafauna in three subregions of the South Pacific (New Caledonia, Wallis and Futuna, and French Polynesia)

Context Assessing the distribution and abundance of marine fauna and the ecological status of coastal and pelagic ecosystems is key to biodiversity conservation, but the monitoring of mobile marine species raises multiple logistical and financial challenges. Aims The project describes the distribution, abundance and taxonomic assemblage of several marine megafauna taxa in three subregions of the western and central South Pacific Ocean (New Caledonia, Wallis and Futuna, and French Polynesia). Methods Large-scale aerial surveys were conducted using a standardised multi-taxon protocol, to characterise the occurrence and abundance of marine megafauna over 2.5 million km2. Analysing more than 122 000 km of transects, the densities of 22 different taxa were estimated: seven taxonomic groups of marine mammals (Physeteridae, Kogiidae, Ziphiidae, Globicephalinae, Small Delphininae, Large Delphininae, and Dugongidae), a single group for hard-shelled sea turtles, three groups of elasmobranchs (including whale sharks), and 11 groups of seabirds (including Phaethontidae, Hydrobatidae, Fregatidae and Sulidae). Key results Contrasting patterns of species distribution were found. Marine mammal diversity increases north and west, with a distinct species assemblage in New Caledonia, compared to other subregions. A strong latitudinal gradient was observed across French Polynesia, independent of taxa. Conclusions This study provides the first comparison of marine species assemblages across the three oceanic subregions and sets a regional baseline for the biogeography of marine megafauna in the region. Implications The taxonomic and spatial extension of the results opens up new perspectives for the development of local conservation measures, especially for taxa with already documented population declines.

Key issues in assessing threats to sea turtles: knowledge gaps and future directions

Sea turtles are an iconic group of marine megafauna that have been exposed to multiple anthropogenic threats across their different life stages, especially in the past decades. This has resulted in population declines, and consequently many sea turtle populations are now classified as threatened or endangered globally. Although some populations of sea turtles worldwide are showing early signs of recovery, many still face fundamental threats. This is problematic since sea turtles have important ecological roles. To encourage informed conservation planning and direct future research, we surveyed experts to identify the key contemporary threats (climate change, direct take, fisheries, pollution, disease, predation, and coastal and marine development) faced by sea turtles. Using the survey results and current literature, we also outline knowledge gaps in our understanding of the impact of these threats and how targeted future research, often involving emerging technologies, could close those gaps.

Manatee watching is widespread and seasonally affected in Northeast Brazil: a case of the Endangered Trichechus manatus manatus (Sirenia: Trichechidae)

Marine mammal watching is a non-consumptive wildlife-oriented tourism practice. Trichechus manatus manatus (hereinafter – Antillean manatee) belongs to the charismatic marine megafauna and is subject to this practice at many places. Here we investigated the Antillean manatee watching in Brazil, focusing on mapping this activity across the country, identifying hotspot areas, analysing the potential seasonality of this practice, and assessing the interactions between people and Antillean manatees. We used a social network as data source since this species often appears on social media. The species is charismatic and have characteristics, which attract public affection such as large body size, gentle behaviour, and distinct physical appearance. We detected Antillean manatee watching in 91 localities distributed across 19 municipalities and nine states in northern and north-eastern Brazil. We considered six localities as Antillean manatee watching hotspots because of their high number of associated images. Five of the hotspots were located within three Protected Areas for sustainable use. We found up to 23 people depicted in a single manatee-related picture posted on social network, but up to five people appeared in most posts (photos and videos). Furthermore, images were significantly posted mostly during the summer months, indicating seasonality in Antillean manatee watching. We classified the manatee-watching interactions collected as either prohibited or permitted by the Brazilian law. Permitted interactions were significantly more frequent, but the occurrence of prohibited interactions reveals the current lack of compliance with Brazilian regulations. We suggest that tourism management strategies prioritise Antillean manatee watching hotspot areas, focusing on reinforcing compliance with local regulations and preferably involving local residents to ensure the sustainability of this practice in Brazil.

Exploring marine mammal presence across seven US national marine sanctuaries

The United States of America’s Office of National Marine Sanctuaries (ONMS) hosts 15 National Marine Sanctuaries (NMS) and two Monuments in its waters. Charismatic marine megafauna, such as fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus), humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae), and various delphinid species frequent these areas, but little is known about their occupancy. As part of a national effort to better understand the soundscapes of NMS, 22 near-continuous passive acoustic bottom mounted recorders and one bottom-mounted cable hydrophone were analyzed within seven NMS (Stellwagen Bank, Gray’s Reef, Florida Keys, Olympic Coast, Monterey Bay, Channel Islands, and Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale sanctuaries). The daily acoustic presence of humpback and fin whales across 2 years (November 2018–October 2020) and hourly presence of delphinids over 1 year (June 2019–May 2020) were analyzed. Humpback whales showed variability in their acoustic presence across NMS, but in general were mostly present January through May and September through December, and more scarce or fully absent June through August. Consecutive days of humpback whale vocalizations were greatest at sites HI01 and HI05 in the Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale NMS and fewest at the Channel Islands NMS. Fin whales exhibited a similar seasonal pattern across the West Coast NMS and Stellwagen Bank NMS. Monterey Bay NMS had the greatest number of median consecutive presence of fin whales with fewest at Stellwagen Bank NMS. Delphinid acoustic presence varied throughout and within NMS, with sites at the Channel Islands and Hawaiʻi NMS showing the highest occupancy. All NMS showed distinct monthly delphinid acoustic presence with differences in detected hours between dayversusnight. Sixteen sites had medians of delphinid presence between one and three consecutive days, while three sites had 5 days or more of consecutive presence, and one site had no consecutive delphinid presence, showing clear variation in how long they occupied different NMS. Marine mammals utilized all NMS and showed a wide range of occupancy, emphasizing the importance of understanding species use across different NMS as biological areas for migration, breeding and foraging.

First Assessment of Micro-Litter Ingested by Dolphins, Sea Turtles and Monk Seals Found Stranded along the Coasts of Samos Island, Greece.

This study is the first to assess the occurrence of micro-litter ingested by marine megafauna in the north-eastern Aegean Sea. A total of 25 specimens from four species of marine mammals, including dolphins and monk seals, and two species of sea turtles, found stranded along the coastline of Samos Island, Greece, were selected for the analysis. Litter particles, identified as microplastics (MPs), were ubiquitous throughout all sections of the gastrointestinal tract (oesophagus, stomach and intestine) in all specimens. Overall, the MPs most frequently found were black fibres 0.21-0.50 mm in size. These results provide insight into the extent of micro-litter ingestion and contamination in marine vertebrates. Here we propose a method of standardisation to establish a baseline for marine taxa in this region of the Mediterranean Sea, where knowledge of the topic is still lacking.

Unraveling site fidelity and residency patterns of sperm whales in the insular oceanic waters of Macaronesia

Knowledge of the distribution and residency of pelagic marine megafauna, particularly deep-diving species, is scarce due to their high mobility over difficult-to-access oceanic areas and long periods underwater. However, the threatened status of many of these species, such as the sperm whalePhyseter macrocephalus, increases the need to obtain quantitative data to support conservation measures. In the warm temperate waters of Macaronesia (Eastern North Atlantic), sperm whales occur year-round in a set of island systems (the Azores, Madeira, and the Canaries), mainly in social groups of females and juveniles with the occasional visits of mature males. Although it is known that they perform inter-archipelago movements, information on site fidelity and residency times is still scarce. Here, based on photographic-identification data, site fidelity and residency times of sperm whales were estimated for subareas of the Azores and the Madeira archipelagos, with a preliminary assessment for a subarea of the Canaries. The Azores and Madeira subareas presented similar proportions of individuals with recaptures (~25%), mainly inter-annual, while in the subarea of the Canaries, only &amp;lt;10% of the individuals were recaptured. Standardized Site Fidelity Indexes showed very low values (&amp;lt;0.01) for both the Azores and Madeira subareas. Lagged identification rates based on models including emigration and reimmigration estimated that an average of 44.8 individuals (SE=4.9) spent 12.9 days (SE=1.5) in the Azores before leaving for 99.1 days (SE=12.5), while 8.4 individuals (SE=16.1) spent 0.8 day (SE=6.6) in Madeira before leaving for 8.6 days (SE=6.9), with a very low mortality rate. This study i) indicates a degree of residency of about ¼ of the identified individuals for the Azores and Madeira subareas and ii) supports that these oceanic archipelagos constitute an important habitat for a Vulnerable species in the Atlantic. Moreover, it also highlights the importance of combining data from opportunistic and dedicated surveys and joint national and international efforts toward the conservation of marine megafauna.

Unravelling the phylogenetic and ecological drivers of beak shape variability in cephalopods

Cephalopod beaks are essential for prey acquisition and fragmentation during feeding. Thus, it is expected that ecological pressures affect cephalopod beak shape. From a practical perspective, these structures are also used to identify gut contents of marine megafauna, such as toothed whales, sharks, seabirds, and large pelagic fishes. Here, we investigated the relative importance of ecological pressures and phylogenetic relatedness in the evolution of beak shape using a wide range of Mediterranean cephalopod species. Phylogenetic analyses based on complete mitogenomes and nuclear ribosomal genes provided a well-supported phylogeny among the 18 included cephalopods. Geometric morphometric and stable isotope methods were implemented to describe interspecific beak shape and trophic niche variability, respectively. Phylogenetic signal was detected in the shape of both parts of the beak (upper and lower). However, lower beak shape was more distinct among closely related species, in line with the empirical notion that lower beak morphology is more useful as an identification tool in cephalopods. Interestingly, no association between beak shape and trophic niche (stable isotope values) was found. These results suggest that the evolution of cephalopod beak shape as quantified here is mainly driven by phylogenetic relationships, while feeding habits play a minor role.Graphical abstract

Designing locally-appropriate conservation incentives for small-scale fishers

Large, long-lived marine animals (‘marine megafauna’) are amongst the world's most threatened taxa, primarily due to overfishing. Reducing fisheries' impacts on marine megafauna is particularly challenging in small-scale fisheries (SSFs), where endangered species can have important consumptive use values. Payments for ecosystem services (PES) have been proposed as a potential solution, but there is a lack of empirical data on if and how they might work in this context. We present a novel combination of methods – scenario interviews with contingent valuation (CV) – for exploring and designing locally-appropriate PES schemes; and apply these methods to investigate how different types of incentives might influence fisher behaviour and mortality of Critically Endangered taxa in two case study SSFs in Indonesia. Fishers almost unanimously supported positive conditional incentives: 98 % and 96 % of fishers would stop landing hammerhead sharks (Sphyrna spp.) and wedgefish (Rhynchobatus spp.), respectively, in contrast to 1 % and 6 % under a business-as-usual scenario, and 52 % and 46 % in response to a negative incentive (fine). CV results showed that an incentive-based scheme for catch mitigation of all hammerheads and wedgefish across both sites could cost US$71,408–235,927 annually, and save up to 18,500 and 2140 individuals, respectively. This study provides empirical evidence that PES could offer a cost-effective and socially-just approach for marine conservation in SSFs; and offers a scalable method for designing locally-appropriate investment-ready schemes, which could support the delivery of societal goals such as net positive outcomes for marine biodiversity and a sustainable and equitable blue economy.

Use of Unnamed Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) to monitor marine megafauna strandings in beach monitoring programs

Use of Unnamed Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) to monitor marine megafauna strandings in beach monitoring programs

Recovery of carbon benefits by overharvested baleen whale populations is threatened by climate change

Despite the importance of marine megafauna on ecosystem functioning, their contribution to the oceanic carbon cycle is still poorly known. Here, we explored the role of baleen whales in the biological carbon pump across the southern hemisphere based on the historical and forecasted abundance of five baleen whale species. We modelled whale-mediated carbon sequestration through the sinking of their carcasses after natural death. We provide the first temporal dynamics of this carbon pump from 1890 to 2100, considering both the effects of exploitation and climate change on whale populations. We reveal that at their pre-exploitation abundance, the five species of southern whales could sequester 4.0 × 105 tonnes of carbon per year (tC yr-1). This estimate dropped to 0.6 × 105 tC yr-1 by 1972 following commercial whaling. However, with the projected restoration of whale populations under a RCP8.5 climate scenario, the sequestration would reach 1.7 × 105 tC yr-1 by 2100, while without climate change, recovered whale populations could sequester nearly twice as much (3.2 × 105 tC yr-1) by 2100. This highlights the persistence of whaling damages on whale populations and associated services as well as the predicted harmful impacts of climate change on whale ecosystem services.

Aerial Drone Surveys Reveal the Efficacy of a Protected Area Network for Marine Megafauna and the Value of Sea Turtles as Umbrella Species

Quantifying the capacity of protected area networks to shield multiple marine megafauna with diverse life histories is complicated, as many species are wide-ranging, requiring varied monitoring approaches. Yet, such information is needed to identify and assess the potential use of umbrella species and to plan how best to enhance conservation strategies. Here, we evaluated the effectiveness of part of the European Natura 2000 protected area network (western Greece) for marine megafauna and whether loggerhead sea turtles are viable umbrella species in this coastal region. We systematically surveyed inside and outside coastal marine protected areas (MPAs) at a regional scale using aerial drones (18,505 animal records) and combined them with distribution data from published datasets (tracking, sightings, strandings) of sea turtles, elasmobranchs, cetaceans and pinnipeds. MPAs covered 56% of the surveyed coastline (~1500 km). There was just a 22% overlap in the distributions of the four groups from aerial drone and other datasets, demonstrating the value of combining different approaches to improve records of coastal area use for effective management. All four taxonomic groups were more likely to be detected inside coastal MPAs than outside, confirming sufficient habitat diversity despite varied life history traits. Coastal habitats frequented by loggerhead turtles during breeding/non-breeding periods combined overlapped with 76% of areas used by the other three groups, supporting their potential use as an umbrella species. In conclusion, this study showed that aerial drones can be readily combined with other monitoring approaches in coastal areas to enhance the management of marine megafauna in protected area networks and to identify the efficacy of umbrella species.

Identifying conservation priorities for a widespread dugong population in the Red Sea: Megaherbivore grazing patterns inform management planning

Extensive home ranges of marine megafauna present a challenge for systematic conservation planning because they exceed spatial scales of conventional management. For elusive species like dugongs, their management is additionally hampered by a paucity of basic distributional information across much of their range. The Red Sea is home to a wide-spread, globally important but data-poor population of dugongs. We surveyed the north-eastern Red Sea in the waters of NEOM, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, to locate feeding sites and determine priority areas for dugong conservation. We conducted large-scale in-water surveys of dugong feeding trails across 27 seagrass meadows that span 0.7 degree of latitude and recorded nine seagrass species and 13 dugong feeding sites. Spread over ∼4‚061 km2 of nearshore and offshore waters, many of these sites clustered around five main core feeding areas. Dugong feeding trails were mostly recorded at sites dominated by the fast-growing pioneer seagrasses Halodule uninervis, Halophila ovalis and/or H. stipulacea. Multispecific meadows with pioneer seagrasses tended to be sheltered and shallow, reflecting a similar spatial pattern to the identified dugong feeding sites. Often close to hotels and fishing harbours, these high-use dugong areas are subject to high boat traffic, fishing, and coastal development which places considerable pressures on this vulnerable mammal and its seagrass habitat. The rapidly accelerating coastal development in the northern Red Sea directly threatens the future of its dugong population. Although our sampling focuses on feeding signs in early successional seagrasses, the results are valuable to spatial conservation planning as they will trigger overdue conservation interventions for a globally threatened species in a data-poor area. Urgent dugong conservation management actions in the northern Red Sea should focus on shallow waters sheltered by coastal lagoons, bays and the lee of large islands.

Conservation planning for threatened marine megafauna: Moving forward with a better approach

Abstract For threatened marine megafauna, such as the Indo‐Pacific humpback dolphin (Sousa chinensis), sound conservation planning should aim to ensure demographic and ecological persistence of populations. One method to address this challenge is through ecosystem‐based conservation planning (ECP) based on threatened marine megafauna distribution, biodiversity richness, and ecosystem functionality. ECP exercises for the Indo‐Pacific humpback dolphin in Chinese and adjacent northern Vietnamese waters were conducted based on the Indo‐Pacific humpback dolphin distribution, Hill‐2 biodiversity index, and marine net primary productivity. Habitat protection priorities were scored using the program MARXAN and were used to identify special areas for conservation (SACs) for the Indo‐Pacific humpback dolphin. To ensure the minimal risk of local extinction, the SACs enclosed a total of 26,858 km2 of waters, accounting for 49.9% of core habitats of the Indo‐Pacific humpback dolphin and 24.3% of the IUCN Red List species in the study region. To enclose 30% of biodiversity richness and ecosystem functionality, a total of 40,179 km2 SACs was required. In the context of threatened marine megafauna conservation, megafauna distribution can be used to highlight focal areas, while information on biodiversity richness and ecosystem functionality should be factored in. Using surrogates with different ecological niches would be a better tactic to ensure sufficient protection coverage by minimizing the omission bias. The conservation of threatened marine megafauna in coastal and estuarine waters shares similar objectives with global marine biodiversity conservation. The challenges to conduct ECP exercises come from data scarcity and poor data quality in representing distributions of biodiversity features. A certified open‐access database that shares survey effort, occurrence, population density, and habitat mapping at national and local scales is recommended. Such a result requires national planning, investment, and policing.

Conservation Culturomics: Potential Applications in South Asia

Unsustainable human behavior has significantly contributed to the contemporary global biodiversity crisis. In order to mitigate this, it is crucial to study the underlying factors that have resulted in such behavior. Conservation culturomics is an emerging research method that uses digitally available data to gain insights on human-nature relationships at relevant spatial and temporal scales. This method also provides a cost-effective mechanism to inform people-centric conservation policy. Depending on the research question, the data collection and analysis can be tailored, taking advantage of recent advances in information technology. While it is most often applied to global studies, conservation culturomics can also be applied at a regional scale to gather vast volumes of data that represent context-specific human values towards nature. Examination of case studies from South Asia demonstrate the range of potential subjects that culturomics studies can examine, including marine megafauna (whales), avifauna (vultures), and habitats (wetlands). Conservation outcomes of culturomics research are broad, and can include: ecosystem services valuation to motivate habitat restoration, spatial and temporal variation in whale sightings to inform ecotourism guidelines and management, and public perceptions of vultures to inform awareness and outreach initiatives. The major impediments to conservation culturomics in regions such as South Asia are socio-economic biases among internet users and the need for sophisticated technological knowledge; however, with the increasing accessibility of the internet, this is set to change in the future.