Marine Container Research Articles

Modeling Gate Congestion of Marine Container Terminals, Truck Waiting Cost, and Optimization

As a consequence of the continuing growth of container volume and the introduction of 13,000 containerships carrying 20-ft-equivalent-unit (TEU) containers into major trade routes, the port industry is under pressure to come up with the necessary capacity to accommodate the increasing freight volume. One critical issue is the gate capacity of marine container terminals. Limited gate capacity leads to congestion. The harbor trucking industry operates in a competitive environment, and gate congestion is detrimental to its economic well-being. This paper applies a multiserver queuing model to analyze gate congestion and to quantify the truck waiting cost. An optimization model was developed to minimize the total gate system cost with data from field observations. A case study was applied to analyze gate congestion behavior and the truck waiting cost. The sensitivity of the model is discussed. With optimization, the truck waiting cost can be drastically reduced. Several congestion mitigation alternatives can be derived from the optimization model; the use of a truck appointment system seems to be the most viable way to reduce gate congestion and increase system efficiency.

Empty marine container logistics: facts, issues and management strategies

With the global container population exceeding 25 million TEU (Twenty-foot Equivalent Unit) and the annual production of new boxes exceeding 3 million TEU it is estimated that around 1.5 million TEU of empty containers are sitting in yards and depots around the world waiting for use. Although utilization rates have improved since 2004, container utilization depends on the very dynamic nature of container transportation, and the container building and leasing industries. Owing primarily to the chronic trend of increasing trade imbalances across the oceans, and despite recent trends along some trade routes, the empty container management problem has become a major issue for the container shipping industry during the last decade. This paper examines and analyzes empty container logistics at a global, interregional, regional and local level. Special consideration is given to key factors affecting the empty container logistics management and strategies implemented by ocean carriers and other stakeholders to better manage empty containers.

Robust Scheduling of Truck Arrivals at Marine Container Terminals

The use of a truck appointment system is gaining momentum in the marine container industry. It is used to regulate the number of trucks that can enter the terminal. Terminals employing appointment systems put a cap on the number of trucks that can enter a zone in the yard per time window. Limiting truck arrivals can be beneficial to some extent; however, if the caps are not set properly, it could be detrimental to both the terminal and the truckers. This paper examines the effect of limiting truck arrivals on truck turn time and crane utilization. In addition, it proposes a methodology to assist terminal operators with determining the optimal number of trucks to accept for the appointment system to be effective. The proposed methodology, which is a combination of mathematical formulation and simulation, seeks a solution that is beneficial for both the terminal operator and the trucker. Furthermore, the solution is robust to account for truckers with appointments showing up late or not showing up at all.

Optimization via simulation for logistic systems planning and control

This text summarizes the author’s PhD thesis, presented in February 2007 at the University of Calabria and supervised by Roberto Musmanno and Pasquale Legato. The work deals with the field of optimization via simulation. A special emphasis is put on problems with discrete decision variables because they are especially relevant in engineering applications (e.g., in the design of logistic systems). In particular, the thesis focuses on a critical decision problem at marine container terminals. For tackling the problem, an optimization via simulation procedure is presented. Computational results are obtained by using high performance computing systems. The thesis is written in Italian and is available from the author upon request.

A yard storage strategy for minimizing traffic congestion in a marine container transshipment hub

This paper studies a storage yard management problem in a transshipment hub where the loading and unloading activities are both heavy and concentrated. In order to reduce the number of reshuffles, which helps to reduce the vessel turnaround time, the port operator uses the consignment strategy to group export and transshipment containers according to their destination vessel. To reduce the potential traffic congestion of prime movers, a high–low workload balancing protocol is used. A mixed integer programming model is formulated to determine the storage locations of incoming containers, the number of incoming containers and the smallest number of yard cranes to deploy in each shift. An iterative improvement method is developed to solve the problem, in which a tabu search based heuristic algorithm is used to generate an initial yard template, and then the generated yard template is improved by an improvement algorithm iteratively until an optimal or a satisfactory solution is obtained. Experiment results show that the proposed method can generate excellent results within a reasonable time, even for the extreme cases.

Optimization of Internal Transport Cycle in a Marine Container Terminal Managed by Straddle Carriers

Combined with the success of containerization, globalization has brought about tremendous increases in container transport around the world. Increased container transport leads to larger container ships, which increase demands on seaport container terminals and their equipment. In this situation, the success of container terminals depends on a fast transshipment process combined with reduced costs. It is thus necessary to optimize the three main logistic processes at seaport container terminals: loading and unloading container ships, storing containers, and receiving and delivering containers to and from the hinterland. In another process, the internal transport subsystem ensures the interconnection between previous logistic activities. The optimization of an internal transport cycle is presented for a marine container terminal managed by straddle carriers (SCs), which are among the most used technologies for container transfer. Three subsystems are analyzed in detail: landside transportation, container storage in the yard, and quayside transportation. The conflicts and decisions that arise from operations in these subsystems are analyzed, and optimization algorithms are proposed. Moreover, a simulation is run on Spain's Barcelona Container Terminal to test the algorithms and compare different SC operation strategies (e.g., single cycle versus double cycle) and different-sized fleets of handling equipment. The simulation model is explained in detail, and the main decision-making algorithms from the model are presented and formulated.

Evaluating truck turn time in grounded operations using simulation

This paper presents in detail techniques for developing simulation models of marine container terminals using Arena. It illustrates the concepts by modelling the Port of Houston's Barbours Cut Container Terminal (BCT) and subsequently discusses how the model can be used to answer one of many operational questions BCT management had ? how many yard cranes are needed to reduce truck turn time to a desirable level. Arena is demonstrated in this research that it can be used to model all aspects of container terminal operations, including the precise movements of trucks and cranes in grounded operations.

Solving simulation optimization problems on grid computing systems

The optimal assignment of berth slots and cranes to shipping services is the central logistics problem at modern marine container terminals and should be formulated to specifically account for its stochastic nature. We use a computational grid to solve a major seaport logistic problem by a simulation optimization approach centred around a queuing network model of the logistic process of interest. We emphasize the power of grid computing for the simulation optimization studies and we design and implement an algorithm for distributing the computational load to parallel processors. Performance of the algorithm is demonstrated numerically using real-sized problem instances.

Optimization of Handling Equipment in the Container Terminal of the Port of Barcelona, Spain

Most studies concerning port operations focus on the operation between ship and wharf. However, other port activities may also lead to congestion. In general, the capacity of the handling equipment used to transfer the container between the wharf and the storage yard is critical. This paper analyzes the internal transport subsystem in a marine container terminal and investigates the effect of the type of handling equipment used. The aim is to analyze the behavior of the handling equipment and to model its optimization. Determining a better equipment type to use is not the main concern of this paper. Queuing theory is applied, and simulation is conducted to analyze the system. To perform the analyses, measurements of parameters related to the terminal are required. These parameters were obtained from the container terminal at Barcelona, Spain, one of the best-positioned logistic platforms on the Mediterranean Sea. The results indicate that assignment of the handling equipment resources to an individual wharf crane in a particular berth is not advisable, since any decentralized decision system involves more resources. The handling equipment resources must be assigned to the berth as a whole to obtain greater efficiency, but then a focus on operation planning and reliability is required. The availability of two or three wharf cranes in a berth is not crucial in terms of efficiency; however, it could increase productivity in the berth significantly.

Optimization of Handling Equipment in the Container Terminal of the Port of Barcelona, Spain

Most studies concerning port operations focus on the operation between ship and wharf. However, other port activities may also lead to congestion. In general, the capacity of the handling equipment used to transfer the container between the wharf and the storage yard is critical. This paper analyzes the internal transport subsystem in a marine container terminal and investigates the effect of the type of handling equipment used. The aim is to analyze the behavior of the handling equipment and to model its optimization. Determining a better equipment type to use is not the main concern of this paper. Queuing theory is applied, and simulation is conducted to analyze the system. To perform the analyses, measurements of parameters related to the terminal are required. These parameters were obtained from the container terminal at Barcelona, Spain, one of the best-positioned logistic platforms on the Mediterranean Sea. The results indicate that assignment of the handling equipment resources to an individual wharf crane in a particular berth is not advisable, since any decentralized decision system involves more resources. The handling equipment resources must be assigned to the berth as a whole to obtain greater efficiency, but then a focus on operation planning and reliability is required. The availability of two or three wharf cranes in a berth is not crucial in terms of efficiency; however, it could increase productivity in the berth significantly.

North American Container Port Capacity: A Literature Review

AbstractInternational marine container volumes have surged over the last several decades, but North American ports and their supporting container distribution networks have struggled to increase capacity to match this expansion. This article seeks to review and organize existing container network capacity literature into a taxonomy based on the interrelated stakeholders of container flows. The article first establishes the industry capacity situation, then examines research of capacity influences from stakeholders, including port authorities, terminal operators, longshore labor, shippers, railroads, drayage carriers, intermediaries, ocean carriers, governments, and local communities. Ultimately, the article attempts to establish the urgency of container network capacity problems and identify areas needing further research.

North American Container Port Capacity: A Literature Review

Abstract International marine container volumes have surged over the last several decades, but North American ports and their supporting container distribution networks have struggled to increase capacity to match this expansion. This article seeks to review and organize existing container network capacity literature into a taxonomy based on the interrelated stakeholders of container flows. The article first establishes the industry capacity situation, then examines research of capacity influences from stakeholders, including port authorities, terminal operators, longshore labor, shippers, railroads, drayage carriers, intermediaries, ocean carriers, governments, and local communities. Ultimately, the article attempts to establish the urgency of container network capacity problems and identify areas needing further research.

The Impact of Shifting Container Cargo Flows on Regional Demand for U.S. Warehouse Space

Executive Summary. Freight movements are an increasingly important determinant of warehouse/distribution space demand. In particular, the rising use of marine container terminals in the global movement of goods is a major contributor to demand in the United States. This paper examines the factors that will influence which ports will likely gain market share, including port facilities and transit times. Trends in ship size, use of the Suez and Panama Canals, “land-bridging,” “transloading” and intermodal rail use are also examined. It concludes with a determination of which warehouse markets should benefit from the changing flows of containerized goods through the nation's largest ports.

BORDERS AND SUSTAINABLE TRANS-ATLANTIC FREIGHT TRANSPORT

Borders between countries were originally established as a demarcation of national territory and sovereignty but, with trade liberalization, they have become seen as infrastructure bottlenecks. The paper opens with a discussion of existing research for three types of trans-Atlantic freight moves—marine, air, and intermodal container. The challenges that borders have traditionally presented for freight—regulation, infrastructure and information—are then discussed. After examining the impacts of each of these, the paper concludes that security has recently become not so much a fourth pillar as an umbrella under which the other three operate. Furthermore, it is noted that increasing globalization has led to specialization in production and distribution that may not be environmentally sustainable. This is followed by a discussion of the traditional solutions governments undertake to mitigate border challenges, including multilateral harmonization of regulations and standards, financing new infrastructure development, and implementing technologies to resolve information and efficiency problems. The paper identifies six areas that should be in a forward-looking multilateral research agenda on borders and sustainable transport, but that, is all cases, further work is needed to adequately frame the research questions.

Human resources management at a marine container terminal

We consider the manpower planning problem in the real context of a marine container terminal. The main features of this problem are the uncertainty of workforce demand and the need of ensuring a time continuous efficiency of the terminal, which enforces to decompose the problem into two phases: a long-period planning first and then a daily planning. We propose mathematical programming models for both problems and suitably tailor them to the container terminal at the Gioia Tauro port. We derive solution algorithms by exploiting the mathematical properties of the models: a heuristic approach to a set-covering type problem for the long-term planning, and a branch-and-bound algorithm for the short-term planning. Finally, we report computational results on some real instances.

Finding the Number of Yard Cranes Needed to Achieve Desired Truck Turn Time at Marine Container Terminals

Because of environmental concerns, terminals are increasingly looking to reduce their truck turn time. Terminals are also looking to reduce truck turn time so that they can lower the inland transportation cost of shipping a container. For terminals that stack their containers, the solution may seem obvious: add more yard cranes. However, the high cost of those cranes often prohibits terminals from freely buying more. Another reason terminals are reluctant to add more yard cranes is that there is no clear understanding of how yard cranes affect truck turn time. A study introduces a simulation model for the analysis of truck turn time with respect to crane availability and deployment. This effort is accomplished by modeling the precise movements of trucks and yard cranes. The developed model uses the Barbours Cut Container Terminal of the Port of Houston Authority as a test bed to demonstrate how it can be applied to find the number of yard cranes needed to achieve a desired truck turn time. Other uses of the model include testing the crane deployment methodology, examining the effect of crane failure, and analyzing the impact of an appointment system.

Simulation Analysis for Midterm Yard Planning in Container Terminal

The continuing growth of marine container transport and the complexity in the analysis of terminal port operations have resulted in a situation where computer simulation is mostly suited. This paper focuses on the simulated handling of incoming containers transported on trucks. It is applied on a medium-size terminal using an “All-Straddle-Carrier” system. Input data include parameters of space, speed, and arrival frequency in a generic format, thus making the model adjustable. Results on the service level, i.e., service times, utilization factors, and queues, are generated for analysis. The simulated system is used for short to midterm planning purposes, as well as a process improvement tool. A number of experiments provided the basis for evaluating case terminal performance and determining the potential for further operational improvements.

Modelling the Transport Process in Marine Container Technology

The paper introduces a mathematical problem that occursin marine container technology when programming the transportof a beforehand established number of ISO containers effectedby a full container ship from several ports of departure toseveral ports of destination at the minimum distance (time innavigation) or at minimum transport costs. The application ofthe proposed model may have an effect on cost reduction incontainer transport thereby improving the operation process inmarine transport technology. The model has been tested by usinga numerical example with real data. In particular, it describesthe application of the dual variables in the analysis ofoptimum solution.

Relocation of a Large Black-crowned Night Heron Colony in Southern California

The Port of Long Beach is currently developing the former U.S. Naval Station Long Beach into a marine container terminal. When the Naval Station was operational, a large Black-crowned Night Heron (Nycticorax nycticorax) colony (up to 500 pairs) occupied mature Indian Laurel (Ficus microcarpa) and Olive (Olea europaea) trees that lined the Station streets. Although Black-crowned Night Herons are abundant throughout southern California, a nesting colony of this size is unusual. As part of an agreement with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, the Port agreed to relocate the colony prior to construction of the terminal. In 1999, 50 mature Indian Laurel, Olive, and Paperbark (Melaleuca sp.) trees were boxed and transported to a location in the port approximately two km from the original site. The relocated trees supplemented approximately 70 trees and bushes already at the location, formerly a park. Black-crowned Night Heron decoys were placed in the trees, heron vocalizations recorded from the original colony site were played twice per day, and public access to the site was eliminated. Three years of monitoring have shown that nesting has been successful and has increased at the relocation site; in 2000, 1,128 young were produced from 423 nests. Three years remain in the monitoring plan. No other documented relocation of an entire Black-crowned Night Heron colony of this size is recorded.

Concentration by Time Product and Gas Penetration after Marine Container Fumigation of Table Grapes with Reduced Doses of Sulfur Dioxide

Reduced doses of sulfur dioxide (SO2) were evaluated for the fumigation of marine containers with respect to the concentration × time (CT) product and gas penetration. Two commercial export containers were loaded at 32 °F (0 °C) with 20 metric pallets [40 × 48 inches (102.5 × 123.1 cm)] comprised of 72 expanded polystyrene foam boxes (12 tiers, 6 boxes/tier) of table grapes (Vitis vinifera) and fumigated with 1.0 and 0.5 lb (0.454 and 0.227 kg) SO2, respectively. A third marine container was loaded with 20 metric pallets comprised of 84 plastic boxes of table grapes (14 tiers, 6 boxes/tier) and fumigated with 0.25 lb (0.113 kg) SO2. The boxes contained 16 lb (7.3 kg) of table grapes distributed in nine polyethylene cluster bagsenclosed in a perforated polyethylene box liner. Fumigations were performed through the bottom seal of the rear door from pre-weighed compressed SO2 cylinders. CT product was calculated after taking samples of the atmosphere in the container every 5 to 10 min and measuring the ambient SO2 concentration with a gas sampling pump and colorimetric dosimeter tubes. Pallet and box penetration of the gas was assessed by placing passive colorimetric SO2 dosimeters inside the cluster bags in boxes located in both the third and ninth center boxes from the top of pallets located in the front, center, and rear of the load. Fumigations with 1.0, 0.5, and 0.25 lb SO2, with calculated CT products at 32 °F of 925, 360, and 40 ppm-h (μL·L-1·h-1) respectively, were found to provide excessive, adequate, and insufficient SO2 doses.