Marine Bottom Invertebrates Research Articles

Types of larval development in Littorinidae (Gastropoda: Prosobranchia) of the World Ocean, and ecological patterns of their distribution

Relationships between the types of larval development in 4 species of Littorina from British shores and their inhabitancy of different tidal levels were established by Woodward (1909). His data have led to the view that the Littorinidae present a “text-book” example illustrating obligate interrelationships between the distribution of marine bottom invertebrates in certain biotopes and the possession by them of definite types of larval development. Analysis of data describing larval development of 39 species of littorinids from various regions of the World Ocean covering all its climatic zones, from the tropics to the Arctic, accumulated in the literature (Tables 1-5) demonstrates, however, that there exists only a relationship between viviparity and the inhabitancy of supralittoral zones, and between direct development and the inhabitancy of littoral zones. In 34 out of 39 littorinid species studied pelagic development, in various modifications, is present at all tidal levels; it is most common in the supralittoral zone, but not in the sublittoral zone, as has been generally assumed. The data presented in Tables 1-5 confirm the author's opinion (Mileikovsky, 1971, 1973) that the concept of obligate interrelationships between definite types of larvel development in marine benthic invertebrate and their existence in definite biotopes, based on Woodward's scheme, is false and must be rejected.

On predation of pelagic larvae and early juveniles of marine bottom invertebrates by adult benthic invertebrates and their passing alive through their predators

The dynamic quantitative balance between prey and predator invertebrate species inhabiting the same shallow-shelf (sublittoral level bottom) benthic communities was first discussed by Thorson (1953). Thorson considered the exact timing of larval settlement of prey and predator species possessing pelagic development and temporal supression of the adult predators' feeding activities during reproduction at the time of the preys' settlement to constitute the major factors which facilitate survival of the prey species in such communities. However, information obtained demonstrates that Thorson's “mechanism of balance between predator and prey species of benthic communities” is not always effective in securing survival from predation not only of the prey's spat but even sometimes of the predator's spat also. Because of this, the “mechanism” can not be rated as universally effective in all situations. Analysis of the data so far published demonstrates that, in marine benthic communities, especially in shallow-shelf waters, it is not uncommon for gametes, larvae, or early juveniles of different prey species to pass alive through suspension (filter)-feeding and deposit-feeding adult invertebrates preying on them. Sometimes development can even continue after excretion by predators. The hypothesis of Voskresensky (1948) and Goycher (1949) of the importance of this phenomenon for the maintenance and recruitment of the mussel Mytilus edulis and other filter-feeding lamellibranchs of nearshore waters preying on their own and other lamellibranch pelagic larvae must be rejected on the basis of accumulated data on their feeding and general biology and on the adverse influence of the mucous of their faecal pellets and pseudofaeces on the larvae excreted by them alive. The data considered here demonstrate that, although the passing alive of larvae and spat of benthic invertebrates through benthic predators is not uncommon in shallow-shelf bottom-communities, it plays no important role in the processes of maintenance and recruitment of the species and communities involved nor of the marine benthos as a whole. The actual ecological significance of predation on pelagic larvae and bottom spat of benthic invertebrate prey species by all three main trophic groups of marine benthos (suspension or filter-feeders, deposit-feeders, carnivores) and its importance to predator-prey dynamics in marine benthic communities remains open to debate until more reliable quantitative data become available.

Speed of active movement of pelagic larvae of marine bottom invertebrates and their ability to regulate their vertical position

Pelagic larvae of marine bottom invertebrates are able to perform different types of active vertical movements in marine nearshore and estuarine waters. The speed of these active movements is in the order of magnitude of common representatives of marine micro-and mezo-holozooplankton performing daily vertical migrations, and only slightly less than that of holozooplankton. Only a few morphological types of larvae, characterized by weak ciliary movement apparatus (amphiblastulae of sponges, ophioplutei) have a speed of movement less than 1 cm·min-1. All other types of larvae, which possess strong ciliary movement apparatus or swimming appendages, are characterized by quick active movement from more than 1 to 60 cm·min-1 in lamellibranch larvae, and up to 117 cm x min-1 in decapod larvae. Because of their ability to produce sufficient speed of active movement, pelagic larvae of bottom invertebrates are able to control their vertical distribution in marine nearshore and estuarine waters in all neritic regions, including those with very strong tidal currents, except where local water stratification inhibits their active vertical movement.

The ?pelagic larvaton? and its role in the biology of the World Ocean, with special reference to pelagic larvae of marine bottom invertebrates

Ecological subdivision of marine organisms is often based on two characteristics: presence in a defined environment, and types of locomotion (degree of free active movement) in such an environment. The use of these characteristics results in a simple scheme: (1) Inhabitants of the boundary surface “ocean-atmosphere” (a zone including not only the surface film but also the thin subsurface water layer below it and the air layer just above it, i.e., pleuston and neuston). (2) Inhabitants of the deeper water layers of the ocean i.e., excluding the zone mentioned under (1): (a) passively drifting forms with very limited locomotory capacity, moving practically in the vertical plane only (plankton); (b) actively moving forms which migrate both vertically and horizontally (nekton). (3) Inhabitants of the “bottom”-benthos (level-bottom of oceans and coastal waters, tidal zones up to the upper supralittoral, different types of drifting and floating substrata, e.g. ship bottoms, harbour structures, buoys, driftwood, sargassum, whales, etc.). This simple scheme is essentially based on characteristics of adults. If developmental stages are considered, pelagic larvae of bottom invertebrates, eggs and larvae of fishes and other forms, usually present only temporarily in the plankton, neuston, and pleuston, can be distinguished as “mero-plankton”, “mero-neuston” and “mero-pleuston”, from the permanent “holo”-components of these groups. Division into “mero”-subgroups opposes all these larvae to those of planktonic, neustonic and pleustonic forms developing within the “parental” groups and their environments. However, the last category of larvae in the light of world-wide distribution of the seasonal reproductive pattern of marine invertebrates and some other organisms — especially in temperate and high latitudes — can also be rated to some degree as “mero”-(not “holo”-) components. The present paper proposes to unite all larvae of marine invertebrates (and of other organisms) undergoing pelagic development into one biological group, the “pelagic larvaton”. The main characteristic for all forms of this group is the presence of one and the same life-cycle stage in one and the same environment. All forms of the “pelagic larvaton” are, to various degrees, biologically different from their respective adult forms. Even the pelagic larvae of the holoplanktonic species exhibit some differences. Within the “pelagic larvaton”, 3 subgroups can be distinguished on the basis of their ecological peculiarities; (1) Larvae undergoing their whole development in an environment different from that inhabited by their parents and belonging to a group different from that of their parental forms; e.g. the pelagic larvae of bottom invertebrates which develop in the plankton, neuston or pleuston. (2) Larvae undergoing development in the same general pelagic environment, but in “non-parental” ecological groups; e.g. larvae of nektonic species developing in the plankton, neuston or pleuston; larvae of planktonic species in the neuston or pleuston; larvae of neustonic and pleustonic species in the plankton. (3) Larvae undergoing development in the “parental” groups; e.g. larvae of planktonic species in the plankton, of neustonic species in the neuston, or of pleustonic species in the pleuston.

Types of larval development in marine bottom invertebrates, their distribution and ecological significance: a re-evaluation

The distribution of various types of larval development among marine bottom invertebrates has been discussed on the basis of ecological evidence by Thorson (1936, 1946, 1950, 1952) and Mileikovsky (1961b, 1965). The information at hand is reviewed anew in this paper and is re-evaluated in the light of modern pertinent literature. The interrelationships between certain larval types and their distribution are not as rigid and direct as originally assumed. This can be proved even by the “copy book” example of the distribution of the various forms of development among species of the coastal gastropod genus Littorina. Especially among species with wide distributional areas, local populations may exhibit greater diversity in larval types than has previously been thought. Different types of larval development have now become known to exist in different populations of opisthobranch gastropods and lamellibranchs, i.e., in invertebrate groups in which such variability had been ruled out by Thorson. Variability in the type of larval development within given species — as a function of geographical, seasonal and other environmental parameters —is also more common in other marine bottom invertebrates than formerly considered. Marine bottom invertebrates are characterized not only by the 3 main different types of larval development proposed by Thorson (pelagic, direct, viviparous), but also by a fourth type: demersal (free non-pelagic) development. This fourth type occurs at all water depths and in all geographic zones of the oceans. The most important of the 4 types is pelagic (planktotrophic) development. Thorson's rule (decrease in numbers of species possessing pelagic development from the Equator towards the Poles, and from shallow-shelf waters to greater oceanic depths) is well substantiated by new data. However, one correction is necessary: pelagic development is not completely absent in the abyssal zone, as was proposed by Thorson (1950, and later), but is represented in it by at least several species belonging to various groups of invertebrates, and is also fairly common in the bathyal zone. A detailed analysis of the distributional pattern of the different types of development of marine bottom invertebrates must further take into consideration asexual reproduction with all its different modifications. Asexual reproduction in benthonic invertebrates is ecologically significant because of its common occurrence in nature; in numerous species it is also important as a biological supplement to sexual reproduction. The vast majority of species inhabiting the shallow-shelf zone and, partly, the higher levels of the slope zone of ocean areas located roughly between the polar circles, reveals development by means of planktotrophic larval stages. In the highest latitudes and on the slopes to abyssal depths—characterized by low water temperatures, scarcity of food, increasing hydrostatic pressure and other environmental peculiarities—other types of larval development prevail and, progressively, replace pelagic development with increasing latitude or depth. The distributional patterns of the various types of development among marine bottom invertebrates form one of the most important factors determining the basic distributional dynamics of the whole benthos in all oceans, both in the geological past and at the present time.

Studies on the resistance of marine bottom invertebrates to oxygen-deficiency and hydrogen sulphide

Oxygen-deficient and H2S-containing marine areas are characterized by a decline in the number of species. In laboratory experiments with bottom invertebrates from various biotopes of the North Sea and the Baltic, comparative measurements of the resistance to oxygen-deficiency alone, and to the simultaneous presence of H2S, were carried out. The resistance values obtained show relations to the substratum on which the species naturally occur. The resistance to H2S is greater in those macrofauna species which show higher survival rates under oxygen-deficiency. Further experiments with isolated tissues demonstrate that the species specific differences in resistance occurring in whole animals are already based on the cell metabolism. In general, oxygen-deficiency and simultaneous presence of H2S were endured better in cold than in warmth, and at somewhat reduced pH-values (around 7). The dependence of this resistance on the salinity was only minimal in euryhaline species.

Light as an ecological factor in the dispersal and settlement of larvae of marine bottom invertebrates : Thorson G., 1964. Ophelia, Mar. Biol. Lab., Helsingør, 1 (1): 167–208.

Light as an ecological factor in the dispersal and settlement of larvae of marine bottom invertebrates : Thorson G., 1964. Ophelia, Mar. Biol. Lab., Helsingør, 1 (1): 167–208.

Light as an ecological factor in the dispersal and settlement of larvae of marine bottom invertebrates

Abstract Roughly 90,000 species of marine bottom invertebrates reproduce by pelagic larvae, thus spending the most sensitive period of their life under the influence of light. Data on their responses to light have here been brought together for larvae of 141 species. In their early pelagic stages. 82 % of these species respond positively to light and migrate to the surface layers, 12 % seem to be indifferent to light. and 6 % respond negatively to light and continue to do so during their whole pelagic life. In their later and oldest pelagic stages most of the initially photopositive larvae will turn over to photonegativity, seeking down to deeper lying bottoms. but larvae of many intertidal species will remain photopositive till they stop swimming, thus sticking to the surface layers where they can get into contact with intertidal localities. Larvae of such groups which already in their pelagic phase live in symbiosis with zooxanthellae, do not seem to have another pattern of light-response than larvae of...

Pollination and Pollinating Agents of the Saguaro

number in fish. Rept. Inst. Freshwater Res. Drottningholm No. 29: 115-122. Thorson, Gunnar. 1950. Reproductive and larval ecology of marine bottom invertebrates. Biol. Rev. 25: 1-45. Walford, L. A. 1938. Effect of currents on the distribution and survival of the eggs and larvae of the haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefimus) on Georges Bank. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish. 49(29): 1-73. Wheatland, Sarah B. 1956. Oceanography of Long Island Sound, 1952-1954. VII. Pelagic fish eggs and larvae. Bull. Bingham Oceanogr. Coll. 15: 234-314.

Reproduction and Larval Development of Danish Marine Bottom Invertebrates, with Special Reference to the Planktonic Larvae in the Sound (Öresund)

Reproduction and Larval Development of Danish Marine Bottom Invertebrates, with Special Reference to the Planktonic Larvae in the Sound (Öresund)

On the Larval Forms of Spirorbis Borealis Daudin

Previous articleNext article FreeOn the Larval Forms of Spirorbis Borealis DaudinJ. Walter FewkesJ. Walter Fewkes Search for more articles by this author PDF Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by The American Naturalist Volume 19, Number 3Mar., 1885 Published for The American Society of Naturalists Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1086/273901 Views: 63 Citations: 4Citations are reported from Crossref Crossref reports the following articles citing this article:Paul C. Schroeder, Colin O. Hermans ANNELIDA: POLYCHAETA, (Jan 1975): 1–213.https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-282503-3.50007-9Gunnar Thorson Light as an ecological factor in the dispersal and settlement of larvae of marine bottom invertebrates, Ophelia 1, no.11 (May 1964): 167–208.https://doi.org/10.1080/00785326.1964.10416277Arthur Wrigley Some Eocene Serpulids, Proceedings of the Geologists' Association 62, no.33 (Jan 1951): 177–202.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7878(51)80020-8HELEN L. M. PIXELL Polychæa from the Pacific Coast of North America.— Part I. SERPULTIDE. with a Revised Table of Classification of the Gennus Spirorbis, Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 82, no.44 (Jul 2010): 784–805.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1912.tb07558.x