Marijuana Involvement Research Articles

Parenting Characteristics Protective Against Substance Use and Deviant Peer Involvement in High-Risk Neighborhoods

Robust research shows that poor parenting practices are related to adverse outcomes among adolescents; however, few have examined the interaction between parenting variables and adolescent outcomes within the context of exposure to relentless crime. The current study examined the combined effects of parental monitoring and discipline on marijuana involvement and deviant peer affiliation among adolescent males living in Los Angeles neighborhoods with concentrated crime. For this study, areas with higher-than-average crime rates were selected based on census data, published statistics, and law-enforcement data. The study included 349 males between 13 and 17 years of age, mostly Latino (70.2%) and African American (28.4%). Data were collected using questionnaires to interview participants and analyzed using logistic regression. Results suggest that among adolescent males in geographic areas of high violence and crime, the interaction between parental monitoring and discipline was significantly related to marijuana involvement and deviant peer affiliation. Follow-up analyses showed parental monitoring was only an effective tool at higher levels of consistent parental discipline. In the absence of consistent discipline, good parental monitoring was ineffective at preventing marijuana involvement and affiliation with deviant peers. Results suggest that if time and resources are limited, clinicians should consider focusing on the use of consistent discipline with parents residing in high-crime neighborhoods.

Classifying risky cannabis involvement in young adults using the Marijuana Consequences Questionnaire (MACQ)

BackgroundDespite the growing prevalence of cannabis use and associated consequences among U.S. young adults, relatively little is known about precisely what level of marijuana involvement may be problematic. MethodWith this study we sought to identify empirically-derived cut-scores for the Marijuana Consequences Questionnaire (MACQ) that would distinguish among levels of cannabis risk in a sample of young adult college students (N = 496). We also examined how these levels of cannabis risk corresponded to a variety of indicators of cannabis involvement, including frequency of use, intoxication, other measures of cannabis consequences, and indicators of more severe cannabis involvement (e.g., physiological dependence, loss of control over use, cannabis use disorder). ResultsReceiver operating characteristic analyses yielded cutoffs that distinguished among three distinct levels of risk, “Low”, “Moderate”, and “High”. These empirically derived cut scores showed strong overall differentiation among classifications, with good sensitivity and specificity. MACQ-based risk levels were validated across several indices of cannabis involvement. Cutoffs differed across genders. ConclusionsFindings offer a new application for the MACQ, allowing for the identification of those at greatest risk. As such, this measure may be used to facilitate appropriately targeted intervention.

Older-Adult Marijuana Users in Substance Use Treatment: Characteristics Associated with Treatment Completion

ABSTRACT More older adults are using marijuana and receiving substance use treatment. We used the 2015–2017 Treatment Episode Data Set-Discharges (TEDS-D) to identify characteristics associated with treatment discharge among those aged 50+ whose admission involved marijuana use. Among these discharges (N = 130,287), 7.0% had been admitted for marijuana use only and 93.0% for polysubstance use (13.0% marijuana-primary, 57.7% marijuana-secondary, and 22.3% marijuana-tertiary), and the overall treatment completion rate was 45%. Using logistic regression, we examined associations of detoxification, residential rehabilitation, and outpatient treatment completion with type of marijuana and other substance involvement. Compared to marijuana-only cases, marijuana-tertiary cases had higher odds of completing detoxification (AOR = 1.54, 95% CI = 1.16–2.03), marijuana-secondary cases had higher odds of completing residential rehabilitation (AOR = 1.19, CI = 1.01–1.40), and all polysubstance cases had lower odds of completing outpatient treatment. Of the polysubstance cases, treatment completion odds were higher for those with alcohol problems but lower for those with other illicit drug problems. Previous treatment, referral source, psychiatric problems, first age of marijuana use, and racial/ethnic minority status were significant factors in treatment completion. Better strategies are needed to promote treatment retention and completion among older adults admitted for marijuana use problems, especially those who also have other illicit drug problems.

Sex and age differences in risk factors of marijuana involvement during adolescence.

We aimed to examine whether there are sex and age differences in psychosocial risk factors of marijuana use during adolescence. Data were drawn from 57,767 adolescents (8th and 10th graders) from the 2012-2013 Monitoring the Future study. We examined the association between socio-demographic and behavioral correlates with different frequencies of past-year marijuana use (non-use, occasional use: <10 time, frequent use: 10-39 times, and regular use: 40+ times). We further investigated whether these associations were similar for boys and girls of different ages. Overall, 20.6% of the adolescents reported past-year marijuana use: 12.1% occasional use, 4.3% frequent use, and 3.8% regular use. Girls were less likely to be frequent and regular marijuana users (frequent use: OR=0.83 [0.75, 0.93]; regular use: OR=0.41 [0.36, 0.48]) while no sex difference was noted for occasional use. Also, the odds of deviant behaviors were higher as the frequencies of marijuana use were higher. Compared to younger girls, older boys and girls had higher association between all levels of marijuana use and low self-esteem, low perceived harm, peer influence and perceived easy access. Besides, younger boys were more likely than younger girls to report an association between regular marijuana use with low self-esteem, peer influence, and perceived easy access but not with perceived low harm. Findings suggest the relationship between these psychosocial correlates and frequency of marijuana involvement varies across sex and age groups. These variations ask for a nuanced approach to prevention of marijuana involvement in different groups of youth.

Associations between childhood ADHD, gender, and adolescent alcohol and marijuana involvement: A causally informative design

BackgroundWe report whether the etiology underlying associations of childhood ADHD with adolescent alcohol and marijuana involvement is consistent with causal relationships or shared predispositions, and whether it differs by gender. MethodsIn three population-based twin samples (N = 3762; 64% monozygotic), including one oversampling females with ADHD, regressions were conducted with childhood inattentive or hyperactive-impulsive symptoms predicting alcohol and marijuana outcomes by age 17. To determine whether ADHD effects were consistent with causality, twin difference analyses divided effects into those shared between twins in the pair and those differing within pairs. ResultsAdolescents with more severe childhood ADHD were more likely to initiate alcohol and marijuana use earlier, escalate to frequent or heavy use, and develop symptoms. While risks were similar across genders, females with more hyperactivity-impulsivity had higher alcohol consumption and progressed further toward daily marijuana use than did males. Monozygotic twins with more severe ADHD than their co-twins did not differ significantly on alcohol or marijuana outcomes, however, suggesting a non-causal relationship. When co-occurring use of other substances and conduct/oppositional defiant disorders were considered, hyperactivity-impulsivity remained significantly associated with both substances, as did inattention with marijuana, but not alcohol. ConclusionsChildhood ADHD predicts when alcohol and marijuana use are initiated and how quickly use escalates. Shared familial environment and genetics, rather than causal influences, primarily account for these associations. Stronger relationships between hyperactivity-impulsivity and heavy drinking/frequent marijuana use among adolescent females than males, as well as the greater salience of inattention for marijuana, merit further investigation.

Personality, marijuana norms, and marijuana outcomes among college students

Based on the high prevalence of marijuana use among college students, we examined distal and proximal antecedents to marijuana-related outcomes in this population. Specifically, we examined three marijuana-related perceptions (descriptive norms, injunctive norms, and internalization of college marijuana use culture) as potential mediators of the associations between four personality traits (impulsivity, sensation seeking, hopelessness, and anxiety sensitivity) and marijuana-related outcomes (marijuana use, negative marijuana-related consequences). In a large sample of college student marijuana users (n=2129), our path analysis revealed marijuana-related perceptions to significantly mediate the associations between personality and marijuana-related outcomes. Specifically, internalization of college marijuana use culture mediated the effects of both impulsivity and sensation seeking on marijuana-related outcomes. Not only do our findings suggest the importance of distinct types of marijuana-related norms in predicting marijuana involvement, but also the possibility that such normative beliefs could be targeted as part of personality-tailored interventions.

College student marijuana involvement: Perceptions, use, and consequences across 11 college campuses

BackgroundMarijuana is currently the most commonly used illicit drug in the United States, and with the movement toward legalization of recreational marijuana, the country faces numerous issues regarding policy, prevention, and treatment of marijuana use. The present study examines the prevalence of marijuana use and consequences and compares users and non-users on a wide range of other marijuana-related constructs among college students across 11 universities. MethodParticipants included 8141 college students recruited from the psychology department participant pools of 11 universities throughout the US, including four major regions of the US (West, South, Midwest, Northeast) and states with varying policies regarding the legality of marijuana use. ResultsWe observed marijuana use rates similar to representative samples of young adults and college students (i.e., 53.3% lifetime marijuana users, 26.2% past month marijuana users). About 1 in 10 past month marijuana users experienced no consequences from their use, whereas nearly 1 in 10 experienced 19 or more consequences. Lifetime marijuana users had more positive perceptions of marijuana compared to non-users on a wide-range of marijuana-related constructs. ConclusionsWe report descriptive statistics on a wide range of marijuana-related variables. We hope that these data provide a useful baseline prior to increased legalization of recreational marijuana use. Multi-site studies like this one are needed to study the risky and protective factors for problematic marijuana use. These findings can inform interventions and public policy.

The Development of a Structural Equation Model to Demonstrate the Correlations Between Marijuana Use and Involvement

ABSTRACTThis quantitative study examined the effects of marijuana on academic and social involvement in undergraduates using a structural equation model. The study was conducted at a midsized comprehensive community college in the Midwest and was guided by Astin’s (1985) theory of student involvement. A survey link was e-mailed to all 4,527 eligible students at the college, and 573 students participated in the study. Of the 573 students, 194 identified as users of marijuana and were used as the primary basis of the study. The data from the survey were used in a structural equation model to determine correlations between academic and social involvement and marijuana use. The overall results of the study showed no significant correlation between marijuana use and academic and social involvement.

Impact of adolescent marijuana use on intelligence: Results from two longitudinal twin studies

Marijuana is one of the most commonly used drugs in the United States, and use during adolescence--when the brain is still developing--has been proposed as a cause of poorer neurocognitive outcome. Nonetheless, research on this topic is scarce and often shows conflicting results, with some studies showing detrimental effects of marijuana use on cognitive functioning and others showing no significant long-term effects. The purpose of the present study was to examine the associations of marijuana use with changes in intellectual performance in two longitudinal studies of adolescent twins (n = 789 and n = 2,277). We used a quasiexperimental approach to adjust for participants' family background characteristics and genetic propensities, helping us to assess the causal nature of any potential associations. Standardized measures of intelligence were administered at ages 9-12 y, before marijuana involvement, and again at ages 17-20 y. Marijuana use was self-reported at the time of each cognitive assessment as well as during the intervening period. Marijuana users had lower test scores relative to nonusers and showed a significant decline in crystallized intelligence between preadolescence and late adolescence. However, there was no evidence of a dose-response relationship between frequency of use and intelligence quotient (IQ) change. Furthermore, marijuana-using twins failed to show significantly greater IQ decline relative to their abstinent siblings. Evidence from these two samples suggests that observed declines in measured IQ may not be a direct result of marijuana exposure but rather attributable to familial factors that underlie both marijuana initiation and low intellectual attainment.

The role of neighborhood in urban black adolescent marijuana use

BackgroundThe present study examined the influence of neighborhood factors on transitions in marijuana involvement during adolescence in a sample of primarily low-income, urban Black youth. Methods556 Black adolescents were interviewed annually beginning in first grade as part of a longitudinal study. Latent class analysis (LCA) was used to examine stages of marijuana involvement from 6th to 9th grades. The influence of neighborhood disorder, drug activity, violent crime, safety and disadvantage on transitions in marijuana involvement was tested using latent transition analysis (LTA). ResultsThere was evidence for three stages of involvement: no involvement, offered, and use and problems. Involvement increased steadily during adolescence with a slightly greater risk to transition from offers to use between 6th and 7th grades. Neighborhood disorder (AOR=1.04, CI=1.00, 1.08), drug activity (AOR=1.12, CI=1.02, 1.22) and disadvantage (AOR=1.44, CI=1.10, 1.92) were associated with the transition from marijuana offers to use and problems. Neighborhood disorder (AOR=1.07, CI=1.02, 1.11), drug activity (AOR=1.19, CI=1.10, 1.29) and violent crime (AOR=1.17, CI=1.03, 1.32) were associated with transitioning rapidly from no involvement to use and problems. ConclusionsUnderstanding how neighborhoods could be organized and provided with supports to discourage marijuana use and promote non-drug using behaviors should be an important goal of any prevention program in low-income, urban Black neighborhoods. Enhancing citizen participation and mobilization to address the social processes of neighborhood disorder has the potential to reduce marijuana involvement in these neighborhoods.

Influences of behavior and academic problems at school entry on marijuana use transitions during adolescence in an African-American sample

BackgroundThe aim of this study was to examine how patterns of academic and behavior problems in the first grade relate to longitudinal transitions in marijuana use from middle school through entry into high school among African-Americans. MethodsLatent class and latent transition analyses were conducted on a community sample of 458 low-income, urban-dwelling African-Americans. ResultsTwo behavior problem classes emerged at school entry; externalizing and attention/concentration. Academic problems co-occurred with both problem behavior classes although more strongly with attention/concentration. Youth in the attention/ concentration problem class were more likely to transition from no marijuana involvement to use and problems beginning in the 7th grade and to use and problems given the opportunity to use marijuana early in high school compared to youth with no problems. Youth in the externalizing behavior problem class were significantly more likely to transition from no involvement to having a marijuana opportunity during the transition to high school compared to youth in the attention/concentration problems class. ConclusionsThese findings highlight the importance of developing prevention programs and providing school services that address the co-occurrence of academic and behavior problems, as well as their subtype specific risks for marijuana involvement, particularly for low-income minority youth who may be entering school less ready than their non-minority peers. These findings also provide evidence for a need to continue to deliver interventions in middle school and high school focused on factors that may protect youth during these critical transition periods when they may be especially vulnerable to opportunities to use marijuana based on their academic and behavioral risk profiles.

A preliminary evaluation of a web-based intervention for college marijuana use.

Young adults in college have high rates of marijuana use, abuse, and dependence. Web-based interventions are increasingly popular, but their dissemination exceeds empirical support. One popular but understudied program is The Marijuana eCHECKUP TO GO (e-TOKE) for Universities & Colleges (San Diego State University Research Foundation, 2009). The aim of the present study was to evaluate its short-term effectiveness in changing marijuana involvement and perceived norms in undergraduates. Participants were 317 undergraduates (52% female, 78% White) who reported marijuana use within the month preceding baseline; each was randomly assigned to 1 of 4 conditions formed by crossing e-TOKE versus assessment only, with brief versus extensive baseline assessment (to assess assessment reactivity). Thus, 161 (51%) received eTOKE (77 with extended baseline, 84 with brief baseline), and 156 (49%) received assessment-only control (85 with extended baseline, 71 with brief baseline). 1 month later, all participants reported on marijuana use, problems, abuse and dependence symptoms, and norms. Assessment reactivity analyses yielded no significant differences by assessment condition. Individuals completing the e-TOKE program reported less extreme descriptive norms (ps < 0.01) but no decrease in marijuana use frequency, problems, abuse or dependence symptoms, or changes in injunctive norms (ps > 0.10). Thus, e-TOKE reduces perceptions of others' use, but this study did not provide evidence for its utility in changing personal use and problem indicators in the short-term. More research with longer follow-ups is indicated, given the possibility that descriptive norms could mediate behavior change.

Comparison of the Concurrent and Predictive Validity of Three Measures of Readiness to Change Marijuana Use in a Clinical Sample of Adolescents

The measurement of readiness to change has become common practice in alcohol and drug treatment of both adults and adolescents. Nevertheless, there is relatively little research on the validity of measures of readiness to change among treated adolescents. The purpose of this study was to compare three measures of readiness to change marijuana use commonly used in clinical research and practice with adolescents: the Readiness Ruler, the Stages of Change Readiness and Treatment Eagerness Scale (SOCRATES; Factors 1 and 2, Recognition and Taking Steps, respectively), and a staging algorithm. The participants were 174 adolescents presenting for intensive outpatient alcohol and drug treatment who reported current marijuana use at the initial assessment. Evidence for concurrent validity was assessed by computing simple correlations among readiness measures, and correlations of each readiness measure with marijuana involvement (percentage of days abstinent in the last 30 days, problem severity score, and marijuana abuse and dependence symptom count [based on Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, criteria]) at both the initial/baseline assessment and at a 6-month follow-up assessment. Evidence for predictive validity was based on the results of multilevel regression models of the readiness measures in predicting frequency of marijuana use, symptoms, and problems at 6 months from the initial readiness assessment and then in predicting marijuana use, symptoms, and problems at 12 months from the readiness assessment at 6 months. The results showed evidence for good concurrent and predictive validity for the ruler, the staging algorithm, and Taking Steps but poor evidence for the validity of Recognition. The ruler emerged as the measure with the most clinical utility when brevity and ease of administration are taken into account. Research and clinical implications of the findings are discussed.

Substance Abuse and Dependency Risk: The Role of Peer Perceptions, Marijuana Involvement, and Attitudes toward Substance Use among College Students

Many college students are using substances at levels consistent with Substance Abuse or Dependence, yet little explanation for this phenomenon exits. The aim of this study was to explore a risk factor profile that best separates those with low and high potential for having a substance use disorder (SUD). A discriminant function analysis revealed that participants with a high probability of having a SUD misperceive others' alcohol and marijuana use to a greater extent than those with a low probability of having a SUD. Implications for educators and counselors on college campuses are discussed.

Adolescents' thoughts about abstinence curb the return of marijuana use during and after treatment.

Despite evidence showing that readiness to change substance use predicts reductions in substance use among treated adolescents, there is little research on changes in thoughts about abstinence and marijuana use during and after treatment. The current study tested whether time-varying changes in adolescents' motivation to abstain and perceived difficulty to abstain from marijuana use hinder the return of regular marijuana use during and after treatment. Monthly data on thoughts about abstinence, marijuana use, and treatment utilization were collected over 6 months from 142 adolescents recruited from intensive outpatient substance use treatment. Results indicated that higher motivation to abstain (but not perceived difficulty) predicted fewer days of marijuana use, over and above the individual's average trajectory of marijuana use, the initial severity of marijuana involvement, and the effects of treatment utilization. Moreover, past-month marijuana use influenced both motivation to abstain and perceived difficulty to abstain. Findings highlight the importance of abstinence-related cognitions as a target of intervention during and after treatment and underscore the importance of considering recovery from substance use disorders as a dynamic process of change over time.

Marijuana use patterns among African-American middle-school students: A longitudinal latent class regression analysis

The aim of this paper was to describe patterns of marijuana involvement during the middle-school years from the first chance to try marijuana down through the early stages of experiencing health and social problems from marijuana use in a sample of African-American adolescents. A total of 488 urban-dwelling African-American middle-school students were interviewed in sixth, seventh and eighth grades as part of a longitudinal field study. Longitudinal latent class models were used to identify subgroups (classes) of adolescents with similar patterns of marijuana involvement. Three classes were identified; little or no involvement (prevalence 85%, 71%, 55% in sixth, seventh and eighth grade, respectively), marijuana exposure opportunity (12%, 19% and 26%), and marijuana use and problems (2%, 9% and 19%). High levels of aggressive/disruptive behavior exhibited as early as first grade and moderate to high levels of deviant peer affiliation were associated with an increased risk of marijuana exposure opportunities in middle-school. Moderate to high levels of aggressive/disruptive behavior and deviant peer affiliation, moderate to low levels of parent monitoring and high levels of perceived neighborhood disadvantage were associated with an increased risk of marijuana use and problems. Significant interactions with grade provided evidence that the influences of parent monitoring and neighborhood disadvantage decrease through the middle-school years. Although not statistically significant, the magnitude of the effects of deviant peer affiliation on marijuana use and problems increased two-fold from sixth to eighth grade. These findings highlight the importance of marijuana exposure opportunities in the pathway to marijuana use and problems and the potential to intervene on behaviors exhibited as early as first grade. It also underscores the importance of developing interventions that are sensitive to the strong influence of parents at entry into middle-school and the shift to peer influences by the end of middle-school.

Using Marijuana in Adulthood

This study examines marijuana involvement among a sample of adult users in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 29 adult marijuana users between 2000 and 2002. Qualitative analyses of data on patterns of marijuana involvement in adulthood were conducted. Marijuana use is a leisure-time activity users engage in with close peers or alone. Adult users limit their consumption of marijuana to free time, and keep their marijuana use from interfering with other responsibilities. These adult users are controlled marijuana users; they view their involvement with marijuana as a personal, private, recreational activity.

Risk Factors Predicting Changes in Marijuana Involvement in Teenagers

Risk Factors Predicting Changes in Marijuana Involvement in Teenagers

Risk Factors Predicting Changes in Marijuana Involvement in Teenagers

Marijuana use during adolescence has various adverse psychological and health outcomes. It is poorly understood whether the same risk factors influence different stages in the development of marijuana involvement. To establish which risk factors best explain different stages of marijuana involvement. Data were collected at 2 points using computer-assisted personal interview (wave 1 and wave 2 were separated by 1 year). Twenty-one well-established risk factors of adolescent substance use/abuse were used to predict 5 stages of marijuana involvement: (1) initiation of experimental use, (2) initiation of regular use, (3) progression to regular use, (4) failure to discontinue experimental use, and (5) failure to discontinue regular use. Data were analyzed using logistic regression analysis. Middle school and high school students (N = 13 718, aged 11-21 years) participating in the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health). Three risk factors (own and peer involvement with substances, delinquency, and school problems) were the strongest predictors of all stages. Their combined presence greatly increased risk of initiation of experimental (odds ratio, 20) and regular (odds ratio, 87) marijuana use over the next year. Personality, family, religious, and pastime factors exerted stage-specific, sex-specific, and age-specific influences. Assessment of substance, school, and delinquency factors is important in identifying individuals at high risk for continued involvement with marijuana. Prevention and/or intervention efforts should focus on these areas of risk.

Marijuana use and the risk of Major Depressive Episode. Epidemiological evidence from the United States National Comorbidity Survey.

This is an epidemiological study of a possible causal role of marijuana use in the development of Major Depressive Episode (MDE). Male-female differences in the suspected causal association have also been studied. Data are from 6,792 National Comorbidity Survey participants aged 15-45 years, assessed via the University of Michigan modified version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (UM-CIDI). Survival analysis methods were used to estimate cumulative risk of MDE by levels of marijuana use and to estimate suspected causal associations after adjustment for other influences. The risk of first MDE was moderately associated with the number of occasions of marijuana use and with more advanced stages of marijuana use. Relative to never users, non-dependent marijuana users had 1.6 times greater risk of MDE (95 % Confidence Interval: 1.1, 2.2), even with statistical adjustment for sex, birth cohorts, alcohol dependence, and history of daily tobacco smoking. There was male-female variation in the degree of association between stage of marijuana involvement and MDE, but the strength of the association is modest at best.