Mariculture Zones Research Articles

Spatial, temporal, and speciation variations of heavy metals in sediments of Nan'ao Island, a representative mariculture base in Guangdong coast, China

Heavy metals in sediments from Baisha Bay, Nan'ao Island, one of Guangdong Province's largest mariculture bases in Southern China, were investigated. The results display that the concentrations of 6 heavy metals from surface sediments were 0.040-0.220 (Cd), 24.22-39.61 (Pb), 25.30-42.66 (Cr), 10.83-19.54 (Ni), 15.06-39.24 (Cu) and 55.12-141.73 mg kg(-1) (Zn), respectively. The highest concentrations and the greatest increasing rates of heavy metals were found in a sediment core in a fish cage culture area due to receiving sewage discharge, uneaten fish bait, and boat gasoline combustion. Cd was preferentially associated with the acid-soluble fraction and Pb mainly with the reducible fraction in surface sediments. Meanwhile, Cd and Pb displayed greatest labile fractions, indicating anthropogenic origin. A principal component analysis (PCA) revealed three groupings (Cd; Cr, Ni and Cu; Pb and Zn) that mainly result from different distributions of the metals in the various fractions. The ecological risk of the polluted sediments stemmed mainly from Cd, and from Pb and Cu to a lesser degree. It is suggested that the density of fish-stocking be controlled, periodic movement of rafts (cages) be introduced, and the total numbers of net-cages and human activities in the mariculture zones be restricted. in order to facilitate the recovery of the polluted sediment.

Sedimentary loadings and ecological significance of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in a typical mariculture zone of South China

Two sediment cores were collected from Hailing Bay located in a typical mariculture zone of Guangdong Province, South China, and analyzed for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The concentrations of the sum of 27 PAHs ranged from 62 to 1200 ng g(-1) dry wt, and sediment in the study area was considered to be moderately polluted by PAHs. Source diagnostics based on PAH composition and principal component analysis suggested that PAHs in the study area were mainly derived from petroleum combustion, with discharge of PAHs from fishing boats as an important source. Ecological risk assessment results indicate that PAHs in sediment of the present study currently have minimal adverse effect on the mariculture environment. Comparison of sedimentary inventory of PAHs in the fish harbor of the study area with those in the Pearl River Estuary and the coastal Bohai Bay indicate that the sediment has become an important reservoir of PAHs.

Effects of animal size and nutritional status on the RNA/DNA ratio in different tissues of the green-lipped mussel Perna viridis

This study aimed to examine the responses of RNA/DNA ratio in Perna viridis under different nutritional status via both field and laboratory studies, and hence evaluate the usefulness of this ratio as a rapid growth biomarker in the mussels. First, the effects of size (small: 30–40 mm; medium: 40–50 mm; large: >50 mm) and tissue type (adductor muscle, foot, gill and hepatopancreas) on the RNA/DNA ratio were investigated in P. viridis collected from three different sites with different degrees of eutrophication in Hong Kong waters. Across all sizes, the mussels collected from a fairly ‘eutrophic’ mariculture zone had significantly higher RNA/DNA ratios in their gills than those from the other two relatively clean sites. The RNA/DNA ratio in small mussels was generally higher than in medium and large individuals, though such a size effect significantly interacted with tissue type and site. Second, we conducted a 10-day comparative laboratory study to elucidate the influence of starvation and feeding on the RNA/DNA ratio in the mussels. We observed that both hepatopancreas and foot muscle generally exhibited significant and rapid response to such a short-term starvation or food addition. The present results confirmed that the RNA/DNA ratio in P. viridis is a sensitive biomarker to gauge their growth and general health condition in accordance with food availability and/or eutrophication condition.

Inputs of antifouling paint-derived dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs) to a typical mariculture zone (South China): Potential impact on aquafarming environment

Existing evidence indicated that dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT)-containing antifouling paints were an important source of DDT residues to mariculture zones. However, the magnitude of the impact on aquafarming environment has remained largely unknown. In the present study, the concentrations of DDT and its metabolites (designated as DDXs) were determined in harbor sediment and antifouling paint samples collected from a typical mariculture zone in South China. Compositional and concentration correlation analyses implicated the DDT-containing antifouling paints for fishing boat maintenance as an important source of DDT in the mariculture zone. The annual emission of DDXs to the study region was estimated at 0.58 tons/yr. Furthermore, a comparison of the expected DDT loadings in pelagic fish and field measurements indicated that fish feed especially trash fish was a major source of DDTs in the fish body. Nevertheless, the use of DDT-containing antifouling paints should be limited to prevent further deterioration in aquafarming environment.

Biochemical biomarkers and metals in Perna perna mussels from mariculture zones of Santa Catarina, Brazil

The activity of cholinesterase (ChE), glutathione- S transferase (GST), glutathione reductase (GR), glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH) and catalase (CAT) was evaluated in the gill and digestive glands of the Perna perna mussel transplanted to three non-contaminated mariculture zones under the influence of distinct physical–chemical characteristics. Differences among sites for ChE, GST and CAT activities in gill, as well as ChE, GST and G6PDH activity in digestive gland of mussels, were found and possibly related to differences in physicochemical characteristics of the sites and/or biological status of the mussels. Mussels that were transplanted to another, more urbanized site (Ponta do Lessa) with similar physicochemical characteristics to one of the farming sites (Sambaqui), was also chosen to evaluate biomarker responses to pollution. Activities of ChE, GST and GR in the digestive glands and CAT in the gills were higher in the polluted site. GR was the only biomarker to be unaltered in different farming sites, but induced in the pollution site. The trace metal concentrations in the mussels were low and unlikely to cause the changes observed in the biomarker levels. The present study strongly suggests that monitoring programs should compare sites with similar physicochemical characteristics when using a complementary biomarker approach. In addition, the baselines for the biomarkers and metal used in the present study can serve as a reference for the monitoring of these mariculture zones in future monitoring programs employing P. perna.

A simple model for forecast of coastal algal blooms

In eutrophic sub-tropical coastal waters around Hong Kong and South China, algal blooms (more often called red tides) due to the rapid growth of microscopic phytoplankton are often observed. Under favourable environmental conditions, these blooms can occur and subside over rather short time scales—in the order of days to a few weeks. Very often, these blooms are observed in weakly flushed coastal waters under calm wind conditions—with or without stratification. Based on high-frequency field observations of harmful algal blooms at two coastal mariculture zones in Hong Kong, a mathematical model has been developed to forecast algal blooms. The model accounts for algal growth, decay, settling and vertical turbulent mixing, and adopts the same assumptions as the classical Riley, Stommel and Bumpus model (Riley, G.A., Stommel, H., Bumpus, D.F., 1949. Quantitative ecology of the plankton of the western North Atlantic. Bulletin of the Bingham Oceanographic Collection Yale University 12, 1–169). It is shown that for algal blooms to occur, a vertical stability criterion, E < 4 μl 2/ π 2, must be satisfied, where E, μ, l are the vertical turbulent diffusivity, algal growth rate, and euphotic layer depth respectively. In addition, a minimum nutrient threshold concentration must be reached. Moreover, with a nutrient competition consideration, the type of bloom (caused by motile or non-motile species) can be classified. The model requires as input simple and readily available field measurements of water column transparency and nutrient concentration, and representative maximum algal growth rate of the motile and non-motile species. In addition, with the use of three-dimensional hydrodynamic circulation models, simple relations are derived to estimate the vertical mixing coefficient as a function of tidal range, wind speed, and density stratification. The model gives a quick assessment of the likelihood of algal bloom occurrence, and has been validated against field observations over a 4-year period. The model helps to explain the observed spatial and temporal patterns of bloom occurrences in relation to the vertical turbulence and nutrient condition. The success of the model points the way to the development of real time management models for disaster mitigation.

Real time observations of coastal algal blooms by an early warning system

In eutrophic sub-tropical coastal waters around Hong Kong, phytoplankton or unicellular microalgae can grow rapidly to very high concentrations under favourable environmental conditions. These harmful algal blooms (HABs) have led to massive fish kills, hypoxia, and beach closures. However, to date the causality and mechanism of coastal algal blooms are still poorly understood. A remotely controlled autonomous real time field monitoring system has been developed to continuously track the changes in chlorophyll fluorescence, dissolved oxygen and other hydro-meteorological variables at two representative mariculture zones. The system can give an alarm when a bloom is detected, so that timely manual water quality sampling can be carried out to supplement the telemetric data. During 2000–2003, the system has successfully tracked 19 algal blooms. In the shallow weakly flushed coastal water (depth 7–10 m, tidal current 5–19 cm s −1), the bloom is short-lived, typically lasting a few days to over a week, with chlorophyll and DO concentrations in the range of 20–40 mg m −3 and 2–15 g m −3, respectively. It is found that: (1) the chlorophyll concentration is strongly correlated with its past values in the previous week, suggesting an auto-regressive type of algal dynamics; (2) the dissolved oxygen can reach highly super-saturated levels (12 g m −3) during a diatom bloom, and decreases to below 4 g m −3 at the tail of the growth phase; (3) in contrast, a dinoflagellate bloom is characterized by a much more pronounced vertical structure. Diel vertical migration and aggregation to dense layers are clearly observed. Significant dissolved oxygen consumption is associated with the migration, resulting in DO drops by as much as 6 g m −3 during the bloom; (4) the predominance of diatoms and dinoflagellates at the two sites can be explained in terms of the different hydrographic and nutrient conditions (the N:P ratio). Net algal growth rate, sinking and swimming velocities are derived from the in situ bloom data. The 4-year high frequency data set provides a basis for development of models for forecast of harmful algal blooms.

Organochlorines and dioxin-like compounds in green-lipped mussels Perna viridis from Hong Kong mariculture zones

Concentrations of persistent organic pollutants including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine (OC) pesticides and dioxin-like compounds were measured in green-lipped mussels, Perna viridis, collected from seven mariculture zones in Hong Kong between September and October in 2002 in order to evaluate the status, spatial distribution and potential sources of pollution in these areas. Concentrations ranged from 300 to 4400 ng/g lipid weight for total OCs and 170–1000 ng/g lipid weight for total PCBs (based on 28 congeners). Relatively smaller DDT concentrations in mussels compared with previous studies suggest reduced discharges of DDTs from nearby regions into Hong Kong waters. Detection of a mixture of HCH isomers in the mussels indicated that Hong Kong waters were predominantly contaminated by technical HCHs rather than lindane. Mussel samples from all sampling locations elicited significant dioxin-like activity in the H4IIE-luc bioassay. The greatest magnitude of dioxin-like response (39 pg TEQ/g wet wt.) was detected in mussels from Ma Wan in the western waters of Hong Kong, which is strongly influenced by the Pearl River discharge. Human health risk assessment was undertaken to evaluate potential risks associated with the consumption of the green-lipped mussels. Risk quotient (RQ) for dioxin-like compounds was greater than unity suggesting that adverse health effects may be associated with high mussel consumption.

Development of mariculture and its impacts in Chinese coastal waters

China has a long history of aquaculture. Since the 1980s, mariculture has been considered by the government as an increasingly important sub-sector of aquaculture. Mariculture provides nutritional and economic benefits, and decreases the intensity of exploitation on declining wild living resources. China now has the highest mariculture production in the world. Kelp made up 50–60% the total Chinese mariculture production in 1967–1980. Production of Laminaria japonicaAresch, the leading species, reached 252, 907 t (dry wet) in 1980. The percentage of kelp production decreased after 1981 because of proportionally greater production of molluscs, shrimps and finfish. Marine finfish and mollusc production increased sharply after 1990. In 2001, the total mariculture production reached 11,315,000 t from a production area of 1,286,000 ha. The rapid development and changes in mariculture species have aroused increasing concern about mariculture’s impact on the coastal environment. The impact of coastal aquaculture, such as water quality deterioration and contaminants, will have a significant bearing on the expansion of mariculture. The key of improving and maintaining the long-term health of mariculture zones lies in adopting sustainable culture systems. It is imperative that the density of stocking fish and other economically important organisms such as oysters, and scallops, be controlled, in addition to restricting the total number of net-cages in the mariculture zones. The authors suggest moving rafts (cages) periodically and to development of a fallow system in which area fish culture will be suspended for 1–2 years to facilitate recovery of the polluted sediment. Moving fish culture offshore into deeper waters is also suggested. The authors also believe that large-scale seaweed cultivation will reduce eutrophication in coastal culture zones in China.

Trace metals in mussels from mariculture zones, Hong Kong

In 1997, concentrations of cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), lead (Pb) and nickel (Ni) were analysed in green-lipped mussels ( Perna viridis) from three mariculture zones located in the north-east (Kat O), south (Lo Tik Wan) and to the west (Ma Wan) of Hong Kong. Spatial differences in the concentration of metals were found, chromium and copper were higher at Ma Wan and Lo Tik Wan compared to Kat O in the north-east. In contrast, the highest levels of lead (mean=4.37 μg/g dry wt) were recorded at Kat O. There were no differences in the level of nickel between the study sites. A comparison of the metal concentrations in mussels with the results of a previous study seven years before, in 1990, showed a twofold increase in the mean levels of cadmium for all three sites. However, levels of the other metals in 1997 were lower by 12–32% for chromium, 32–39% for copper and 24–25% for nickel. The greatest reductions were recorded for lead: Kat O (39%), Ma Wan (51%) and Lo Tik Wan (75%). This may be related to the introduction of lead-free petrol in 1991. Despite the apparent reduction in some heavy metal bioaccumulation between 1990 and 1997, from a public health risk perspective, the data suggest a continued need for monitoring of heavy metals in mussels from mariculture zones.

Depuration of metals from soft tissues of oysters ( Crassostrea gigas) transplanted from a contaminated site to clean sites

The present study aimed at studying the transplantation of oysters from a polluted site Lau Fau Shan (existing oyster culture zone) in Deep Bay to two clean sites mariculture zones at Yung Shue O and Kat O. The hydrological data, growth of oyster shell length, mortality and metal contents in whole soft tissue were monitored from February 1993 to February 1994. The high growth phase (increase in shell length) and gametogenesis (decrease in dry weight of whole soft tissue) were noted in winter (with low temperature and high salinity), and slow growth phase and spawning in summer (with high temperature and low salinity). Significant reductions ( p<0.05) of Cd, Cr and Pb concentrations (dry wt basis) in soft tissue of transplanted oysters were observed at Kat O by 29, 55 and 29%, respectively, and at Yung Shue O by 34, 44 and 34%, respectively, with respect to the baseline values for the first batch of oysters and the concentrations in samples collected from Lau Fau Shan in the same months. Maximum reductions of total metal burden in whole soft tissue (μg per individual oyster) of the first oyster batch were found for Cd, Cr, Pb and Sb to be 62, 49, 60 and 25%, respectively, at Kat O, and to be 56, 47, 32 and 49%, repectively, at Yung Shue O. For the second batch of oysters transplanted to Yung Shue O in July 1993, significant reductions ( p<0.05) of Cd concentration and total burden of Cd by 60 and 21%, respectively, were observed in February 1994. The high accumulated mortality and the significant ( p<0.05) lower growth rate of the tranplanted oysters illustrated that the best time for tranplantation of oysters should be between the end of gametogenesis and the start of spawning (i.e. January and February), and the oysters should not be kept for longer than 3 months at the transplantation sites.