Marble Blocks Research Articles

EVALUATION OF THE PERFORMANCE OF WASTE MARBLE DUST AS A MINERAL FILLER IN HOT-MIX ASPHALT CONCRETE

As the construction industry continues to evolve globally, there is a need to develop best practices geared towards achieving sustainable construction. Asphalt concrete’s demand has been increasing steadily with an estimated global demand of 122.5 million tons in 2019. This is driven primarily by the growth in construction activities in developing countries as each country works towards enhancing its transportation facilities to cater to the ever-expanding population. Hence, there are needs to develop newer and more efficient means of asphalt consumption. One of such is identifying cheaper or waste materials for use in Asphalt production. This study, therefore, examined the viability of waste marble dust (WMD), an industrial waste produced during the shaping and polishing of marble blocks and also during its extraction from the mines, as a mineral filler in Hot-mix asphalt (HMA) concrete. Engineering properties such as Marshall stability and flow, Void characteristics, Indirect tensile strength and Tensile strength ratio properties were examined. It was observed that the addition of WMD steadily increased the Marshall Stability and indirect tensile strength values and lowered the voids percentages. The study’s major finding is that waste marble dust is highly suitable as a mineral filler in HMA and a 3% by volume addition of WMD in HMA at 4.5% binder content produced the most optimal mix for use in road pavements.

Analysis of Cipollino Verde marble wall decoration in Ephesos, Turkey, using geological reconstruction

Slabs of Cipollino Verde, composed of layered and folded marble from Euboea in Greece, decorated the hall of a Roman town house in Ephesos, Turkey in the second century AD. After excavation, the fragmented slabs were restored. Preservation of the dowels in the walls from which the slabs were originally suspended allowed reconstruction of the order in which they had been placed on the walls. The pattern of folded layering in the slabs in turn allowed 3D structural geological reconstruction of the folds, and reconstruction of the arrangement of slabs in the marble block, from where they were serially sectioned, using a slab saw. Investigation of geological fold alignment in the block revealed that 23–47% of the marble was lost in sawing and polishing, close to modern values. Comparison of the sequence of slabs on the walls and in the original block reveals the decoration strategy for the Roman hall. Slabs were placed in the sequence in which they had been cut from the block in book-matched fashion, with some rearrangement due to breakage of two slabs. Limited breakage was not due to sawing of slabs, but probably to the polishing process, or to transport of slabs. Analysis of ancient ornamental stone using geological 3D restoration techniques can provide important insights in the archaeology of stone working and trade.

Finite Element Analysis of the Parthenon marble block- steel clamp system response under acceleration

<p class="Abstract">Finite element analysis is employed to investigate the mechanical behaviour and failure scenarios of the marble block–steel clamp ancient masonry system utilised in the Parthenon (Athens Acropolis) under static loading analysis. The input data for the model are acquired by the laboratory testing of early 20th century restoration steel clamps, such as through tensile strength measurements and metallography, as well as bibliographic sources from various scientific fields (i.e. material properties, archaeometry, restoration, structural engineering and geology). Two different embedding materials (Portland cement mortar and lead), used for the nesting of the clamps, are examined under bending or stretching, induced by acceleration forces. The conservation status of the materials is taken into account by employing an intrinsic stress, as is the case when corrosion products build up in a confined space. The aim of this work is to provide a tool for the assessment of the conservation potential of the marble blocks in parts of the monument that require specific attention. Simulation results indicate the resilience of the Parthenon’s structural system under most examined scenarios and highlight the importance of intrinsic stresses, the existence of which may lead to the fracture of the marble blocks under otherwise harmless loading conditions.</p>

Monitoring an iconic heritage structure with OMA: the Main Spire of the Milan Cathedral

One of the most remarkable structural elements characterizing the Milan Cathedral is its Main Spire, built in Candoglia marble and completed in 1769. The Main Spire, reaching the height of about 108 m and supporting the statue of the Virgin Mary, is about 40 m high and stands on the octagonal tiburio erected around the main dome. The structural arrangement of the spire includes a central column which is connected through a spiral staircase to 8 perimeter columns and each column is stiffened by inverse flying buttress. Metallic clamps and dowels connect the marble blocks and metallic rods connect the perimeter columns to the central core. A large monitoring system was recently installed in the Milan Cathedral, including seismometers and temperature sensors at 3 levels of the Main Spire as well as a weather station at the top of the spire. After a concise historic background on the Main Spire and the description of the sensing devices installed in this structure, the paper focuses on the dynamic characteristics of the spire and their evolution during a time span of about 16 months. The presented results highlight that: (a) a high density of vibration modes is automatically detected in the frequency range 1.0-7.0 Hz; (b) the lower identified modes correspond to global modes of the cathedral; (c) the normal evolution in time of the resonant frequencies is characterized by clear fluctuations induced by the environmental effects (temperature and wind); (d) especially the dependence of resonant frequencies on temperature is very distinctive and reveals the key role of the metallic elements in the overall dynamic behavior; (e) notwithstanding the remarkable effects exerted by the changing environment on the resonant frequencies, output-only removal of environmental effects and novelty analysis allow an effective monitoring of the structural condition.

Evaluation of rock cutting performance of diamond segmented frame saw in terms of diamond segment wear

Diamond segmented frame saws are used to produce slab from natural stone blocks in stone processing plants. Diamond segments welded on flat steel blades are utilized for rock block cutting in frame saws. Segment wear (SW) affects cutting performance. Physical and mechanical rock properties and advance rate (AR) play a significant role in SW. Therefore, the relationship between SW, AR, and rock properties should be determined to achieve effective cutting. Low SW and high AR yield the most effective cutting. This study employed marble blocks cut in a large-scale diamond segmented frame saw to determine diamond SW and AR for each cutting process to determine the effects of physical and mechanical rock properties and AR on diamond SW. Advance rate, tensile and impact strengths, Shore hardness, modulus of elasticity, and block weight were used to develop a prediction model for SW. For SW, this study proposed an AR-based prediction chart that can be used to provide effective cutting conditions (lowest SW and highest AR) in diamond segmented frame saws.

A Roman Marble Cargo from a Shipwreck at Porto Cervo, Sassari, Sardinia, Italy

Results of laboratory analyses of samples of marble blocks found in a shipwrecked cargo at Porto Cervo demonstrate that they were almost certainly from the Apuan Alps, which implies that the ship c...

НЕКЛАССИЧНЫЙ КЛАССИК. ВЗГЛЯД НА ИСКУССТВО С. ЭРЬЗИ (1876-1959) ИЗ XXI ВЕКА

For the first time in Russian art history, the article attempts to show the integrity of the art of the Russian-Argentine sculptor S. Erzya on the basis of an art history analysis of his most famous works created in Italy, Russia and Argentina. The features of his personal and creative development are revealed in the context of socio-cultural events, which were distinguished by a stormy, sometimes catastrophic nature. The youthful ideals of Tolstoyism in the mind of a mature master acquire the features of a worldview that asserts the priority of the ideals of moral and spiritual perfection, the devotion to which was almost invariably paid with the price of life. A documentary confirmation of Erziʼs words is given in the entry of his secretary, L. Orsetti. People who knew Erza intimately in Italy, Russia, and Argentina also wrote about their commitment to these ideals. The theme of sacrifice, the suffering path unites both his biblical works and things of revolutionary themes. Their success is described in the article not only on the basis of periodicals, but also for the first time with the involvement of exhibition catalogues. In Argentina, Erzya created monumental portraits of the spiritual leaders of mankind - these portraits by the sculptor himself were collected in a special exhibition in his house: Moses, Beethoven, Tolstoy, N. Gogol. The motives of beauty and birth, the continuation of the human race are embodied by Erzya in the famous female images «Nude», «Eve», «Motherhood», «Dance». The plastic beauty and the mystery of the transformation of the female body fascinated the audience at the exhibitions of the sculptor's works and were evidence of the change in his somatic perception in Argentina. Thus, in the art of Erzi in Argentina, the intuition and emotional supernormality inherent in the cultural consciousness of Latin Americans are manifested. The sculptor's attitude to the material he chose for a particular work was dictated by the concept. His rare ability to work in any material - cement, marble, bronze, wood-makes him stand out among modern sculptors. He followed the Michelangelo tradition in the processing of the marble block and became the only master to conquer the hard species of tropical trees. Today it is obvious that the legacy of the sculptor-thinker Erzya is not fully appreciated.

Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle: The Spolia of Late Antique and Early Christian Rome

The architectural landscape of present-day Rome is a physical history lesson in the use of spolia; ancient marble blocks lie embedded in medieval fortresses, pieces of aqueducts appear in walls, and decorative columns sit recontextualized in grand cathedrals. Spolia refers to the intentional reuse of materials or artifacts in the creation of new structures, and when examined critically it can reveal the history surrounding the many lives the materials have lived. During the transitional phase between late antique Rome and early Christian Rome, the use of spolia reached an all time high. The emergence of Christianity in Rome coupled with the political and economic decline of the empire created a demand for large amounts of cheap building material. With Gaulish invaders to the north, Romans found themselves in dire need of fortification. In addition to the convenience of spolia in mass building projects like the Aurelian Wall, the use of spolia emerged as a way to reconcile the past and present of Rome amidst its rapidly shifting social climate. Clergymen and emperors alike had to recontextualize the physical landscape of the city to fit a modern, Christian framework.

Rock glaciers in mixed lithologies: a case study from Northern Pirin

Rock glaciers are lobate or tongue-shaped assemblages of poorly sorted, angular-rock debris and ice, commonly found in high mountain environments, which move as a consequence of the deformation of internal ice (Giardino and Vitek, 1988; Barsch, 1996). However, in most research works, when discussing the formation of these features, the focus has been mainly on the past or present climatic conditions. The systematic observations of the distribution of relict rock glaciers in the mountains of the Balkan Peninsula indicate however that geological setting, represented by bedrock type and composition, and the pattern of fault lines, is not less important for the formation and evolution of these landforms. The present article is focused on rock glaciers in the high mountain zone of the Pirin Mounains (Bulgaria), which are formed in mixed lithology, with participation of both silicate rocks (granite, gneiss) and carbonate rocks (marble). In fact, these rock glaciers are the only ones of a typical morphology that exist in the glaciokarstic marble area of Northern Pirin. What is common for all locations where such rock glaciers are found is that the marble layer, which is on top, is quite thin (few metres to few hundreds of metres). In such conditions, the rock glacier formation occurred following the mechanism typical for silicate rocks, but using marble debris and block material instead. The observed forms are characteristic only for marginal zones, along the contact line between silicate and carbonate high mountain environments.

Modeling and solving a real-world cutting stock problem in the marble industry via mathematical programming and stochastic diffusion search approaches

In this study, one-dimensional marble plane cutting problem is studied based on the cutting equipment productivity and effective use of marble blocks. Different types of marble planes should be cut from multiple stock sized marble blocks in parallel by using a stone block-cutting machine (gang saw). Marble blocks, which have different dimensions, and quality gradations are supplied by the marble processing factory’s own marble quarries. Different quality gradations of the marble blocks and cutting equipment productivity need to be taken into account in addition to minimize the total trim loss or cost in modelling the present cutting problem. The nature of the production process in the marble industry consists of large amount of waste. Minimizing the amount of waste can be controlled indirectly by establishing an appropriate cutting plan. Therefore, minimization of the total cost of transportation and overgrading (supplying higher quality material than specified by the customer) while determining a suitable cutting plan for the marble blocks is aimed. A mixed integer linear programming (MILP) model is developed for solving the present marble plane cutting problem for small-size instances. The salient feature of the developed model is not requiring a priori enumeration of all possible cutting patterns and to permit generation of retail to reuse. For larger size problem instances a Stochastic Diffusion Search (SDS) algorithm is developed. Extensive computational studies are performed by using test instances, which are collected from a marble processing company operating at İzmir. The computational results show that the developed models and SDS algorithm are very useful in providing effective cutting plans.

New Developments for the Sustainable Exploitation of Ornamental Stone in Carrara Basin

The use of natural stone has historical and environmental value that makes it strategically valuable for landscape conservation in Europe. Marble, among others, is widely spread on Earth, and it offers high-performance features in architectural applications. However, the complexity of these formations and the rock variability in different ore bodies require detailed studies of the natural and induced stress state, the fracturing degree, and the influence of external factor (such as temperature and/or chemical agents) on the mechanical properties in order to optimize the exploitation processes by reducing extractive waste. This article shows a series of studies conducted by the authors over the last 20 years aimed at making the exploitation of marble blocks in the Carrara basin safer, more efficient, and, therefore, more sustainable. In particular, studies for increasing our knowledge of the natural and the induced stress state through on-site measurements and numerical modeling, studies to improve the quality of the exploited material through improvements of cutting technologies, studies to improve the knowledge of the mechanical behavior of the material under varying loads and temperature conditions, and studies to improve the reuse of water materials and their reduction are reported.

In situ X-ray computed tomography (CT) investigation of crack damage evolution for cemented paste backfill with marble waste block admixture under uniaxial deformation

Cemented waste rock backfill (CWRB), which is a mixture of tailings, waste rock, cement, and water, is subjected to the combination actions in underground mining operations. While the strength requirement of CWRB has been widely studied, the mesoscopic damage evolution mechanisms of waste block proportion (WBP) on its geomechanical characteristics are still not well understood. In the present paper, the crack damage evolution of CWRB samples were characterized using real-time X-ray CT under uniaxial compression. The effects of waste block on the stress strain responses, stress dilatancy behaviors, meso-structure changes, and the cracking behaviors were investigated. The results show that strength of CWBR is influenced by waste block proportion, and strength increases are due to geomechanical effects related to propagation of tortuous failure surfaces. Besides, for sample with high WBP, interlocking among the waste blocks also improves the overall stiffness and strength of CWRB compared with tailing paste sample. Volumetric dilatancy caused by the damage and cracking behavior has a close link with the meso-structural changes, which are controlled by the interactions between the waste rock and cemented tailing paste. The crack damage behavior is quite inhomogeneous and strongly influenced by the waste block size, shape, and distribution. Our study demonstrates that it is feasible to reveal the physical mesoscopic mechanism of crack damage evolution for CWRB by using X-ray CT, and the meso-damage cracking behaviors should be deeply studied to ensure stability of pillar during mining activities.

The Inscription of Mnesiepes from the Archilocheion of Paros

The inscription, dated to the 3rd century BC, was carved on a series of marble blocks, of which only two were recovered. It informs us about the existence, on Paros, of an open-air shrine dedicated to Archilochus. This sacred area, called Ἀρχιλοχείον, was instituted by Mnesiepes, a private citizen who seems to have acted as a representative of the local community, even submitting his project to the approval of Delphi. Despite the fragmentary status of the stones, the text has preserved an important tale about some episodes of the poet’s life, which are displayed also using true metrical quotations.

Methodology for the Estimation and Classification of White Marble Reserves

In the marbel industry, ore reserves refer to the produced tonnage of orthogonal prismatic, defect-free blocks of commercial sizes and of marketable aesthetical quality. On the contrary, in the mining sector, ore reserves refer to the tonnage of ore with grade above some cut-off value. While in the mining sector ore reserves are reported according to existing standard guidelines, the marble industry has no standard method. The purpose of this paper is to present a method to estimate white marble reserves using drill coring or borehole wall logging and limited joint mapping on exposed marble surfaces. Data pertaining to fracture orientation, fracture frequency, size, and whiteness were collected. The primary phase of marble characterization is followed by the discretization of the orebody into a three-dimensional array of orthogonal prismatic blocks, where the marble whiteness and fracture intensity are attribute values. Both these variables are considered to obey continuous and not discrete probability distributions. The discretization is performed using computer aided design and the Block Kriging techniques. An outline to improve the description of a given marble ore deposit at the exploration stage is presented for the prediction of marble block size distribution from joint count measurements along diamond drill cores. An example case of a white dolomitic marble quarry is used to demonstrate these methods.

Hydrostatic Bandsaw Blade Guides for Natural Stone-Cutting Applications

In a bandsaw machine, the blade guides provide additional stiffness and help to align the blade near the cutting region. Typically, these are either in the form of blocks made of carbide or ceramics or as sealed bearings. Abrasive particles, generated while cutting hard and brittle materials like natural stones, settle between the contact surfaces of the guides and the blade causing wear and premature failure. The hydrostatic guide system, as presented in this work, is a contactless blade guiding method that uses the force of several pressurized water jets to align the blade to the direction of the cut. For this investigation, cutting tests were performed on a marble block using a galvanic diamond coated bandsaw blade with the upper roller guides replaced by hydrostatic guides. The results show that the hydrostatic guides help to reduce the passive force to a constant near zero in contrast with the traditional guides. This also resulted in reduced surface roughness of the stone plates that were cut, indicating a reduction in laterial vibration of the band. Additionally, it has also been shown that using hydrostatic guides the bandsaw blade can be tilted to counter the bandsaw drift, opening opportunities for further research in active alignment control. This original research work has shown that the hydrostatic guide systems are capable of replacing, and in fact, perform better than state-of-the-art bearing or block guides, particularly for stone-cutting applications.

Biodeterioration Patterns and Their Interpretation for Potential Applications to Stone Conservation: A Hypothesis from Allelopathic Inhibitory Effects of Lichens on the Caestia Pyramid (Rome)

The colonisation of stone by different organisms often leaves biodeterioration patterns (BPs) on the surfaces even if their presence is no longer detectable. Peculiar weathering patterns on monuments and rocks, such as pitting phenomena, were recognised as a source of information on past colonisers and environmental conditions. The evident inhibition areas for new bio-patinas observed on the marble blocks of the Caestia Pyramid in Rome, recognisable as tracks of previous colonisations, seem a source for developing new natural products suitable for restoration activities. To hypothesise past occurring communities and species, which gave rise to such BPs, we carried out both in situ observations and analyses of the rich historical available iconography (mainly photographs). Moreover, we analysed literature on the lichen species colonising carbonate stones used in Roman sites. Considering morphology, biochemical properties and historical data on 90 lichen species already reported in Latium archaeological sites, we suppose lichen species belonging to the genus Circinaria (Aspicilia s.l.) to be the main aetiological agent of such peculiar BPs. These results seem relevant to highlight the long-lasting allelopathic properties of some lichen substances potentially applicable as a natural product to control colonisation, improving the environmental and economical sustainability of stone restoration.

Archaeometric approach to identifying the provenance of white marbles from the shipwreck of Cala Cicala (Crotone, Calabria, Italy)

This paper presents the results of an archaeometric study performed on white marbles from the shipwreck of Cala Cicala (Crotone, Calabria, Italy). The stone materials, especially the white marbles, are an excellent tool for reconstructing the trade routes of the past and studying the relationships between ancient populations. The purposes of this study were to establish the provenance of the white marbles of the shipwreck of Cala Cicala (Crotone, Calabria, Southern Italy) and to use analysis of their composition to acquire more knowledge about trade routes in the Roman imperial age. The 35 samples of white marble were studied by X-ray diffraction (XRPD), optical microscopy (OM), and isotopic analysis (δ13C and δ18O). All of the archaeometric data collected indicate that the marble blocks in the cargos are from the Greek island of Thasos, in the northern Aegean Sea.

Performance Prediction of Circular Diamond Saws by Artificial Neural Networks and Regression Method Based on Surface Hardness Values of Mugla Marbles, Turkey

Sawing of natural stones with diamond-impregnated circular saws is extensively implemented in stone processing plants in variety of applications that include sawing, cutting, splitting and trimming. Hence, the cost of diamond saws and energy have become important input in terms of estimating the hourly areal slab productions (HASPs) from the standpoint of effective cost analyses, feasible and sustainable designing of stone processing plants prior to reaching a decision for the investment. This study aimed at estimating the HASPs of the machines with circular diamond saws during the dimensioning of marble blocks quarried in Mugla (Turkey) Region. Thus, the models were generated to estimate the HASPs by artificial neural networks (ANN) and regression method (RM), based on Shore and Schmidt hardness values of rocks. Also, HASPs were acquired through in-plant measurements in order to justify the HASPs estimated by ANN and RM models. The analyses of the models generated using ANN proved to yield very strong consistencies with HASPs measured in the plants. Hence, the HASPs can be estimated reliably by the ANN models which also may be considered as a tool in designing of natural stone processing plants based on rock surface hardness.

Investigation of treatment process and treatment sufficiency of marble mine wastewater: a case study in Turkey

In this study, wastewater formed in marble mines operated as open mines with the aid of a cutting slope in the soil clarification tanks, which were made impermeable by using membranes and similar impermeable elements, was collected after the sedimentation process. The reusability of the water during the process was also investigated. In the marble mines where the study was carried out, an average of 25 m3/day of water is used as the process water for cutting operations. It is thought that ~ 10 m3/day of this water is evaporated or remains between the marble blocks. However, in the facility, 15 m3/day of wastewater was collected in the clarification tank that was made impermeable with a plastic cover. The initial (I) and final (F) values for the suspended solid (SS), pH, colour (C), oil and grease (OG) and Cr6+ were determined as SSI = 106.5 mg/l, SSF = 58.3 mg/l, pHI = 8.06, pHF = 7.93, CI = 83.5 (Pt–Co), CF = 47.5 (Pt–Co), (Cr6+)I = < 0.05 mg/l, (Cr6+)F = < 0.05 mg/l, OGI = 8.7 mg/l and OGF = 2.3 mg/l. The fact that these values are below the required limits in the Water Pollution Control Regulation applied in Turkey indicates that the treatment is successful and that the clarification tank is working effectively. Therefore, this method can be used successfully in marble mines.

An experimental study on restoration technique for the Acropolis of Athens: developing the experimental set-up for pull-out testing of titanium bars embedded in marble blocks

This work aims at investigating the mechanisms activated during the ex­trac­tion of titanium bars from a marble volume (pull-out phenomenon), used for re­joining fragmented marble structural members at the monuments of the Acropolis of Athens. The restoration protocol includes the insertion of threaded titanium bars into pre-drilled holes in the body of the structural members. The ad­hesion between marble and bars is achieved by an initially liquid cementitious material. There are two main aspects on which this project focuses. Firstly, the weak link of the marble-cement-titanium complex, the marble-cement interface, is inaccess­ible for traditional sensing techniques. In this context, the Acoustic Emission tech­nique is employed in order to detect failure and damages at the interior of the complex. Secondly, the specimens and the experimental procedure should simulate the same stress conditions in which all three phases within the marble-cement-titanium complex are under, while the struc­tural member is in service. For this purpose, two modified tests are proposed aiming at efficiently simulating the bars’ behavior as they are sliding through a marble epistyle. These tests provide promising results with regards to keeping the examined surface between bars and marble free from para­sitic stresses caused by the experimental set-up.