Mara Region Research Articles

Historical Memory and Expanding Social Networks of Mennonite Mission School Women, Mara Region, Tanzania, 1938 to the Present

Because of their structural position as boundary crossers in virilocal marriages, women in the Mara Region of Tanzania have used historical memory to construct social networks across ethnic boundaries for their own and their community's security. During the colonial era these networks were severely restricted, leading to increasingly difficult lives for women. One group of women who found creative ways to reconstruct these far-reaching networks was church women who went to mission boarding schools. Girls left their homes and made connections to a new family in the church that supported them as they moved into new interethnic communities. They began telling their own life histories in the form of the spiritual testimony, shaped by the practice of confession in the East African Revival beginning in 1942. These narratives of resistance to traditional practices like female circumcision inspired others and created a sense of individual agency. Although these stories seem to represent a rejection, even demonisation, of the past, they carry on work entrusted to these women by their grandmothers, of using storytelling, even within a new narrative genre and in a radically new context, to make connections and build community across ethnic boundaries.

Hippopotamus and livestock grazing: influences on riparian vegetation and facilitation of other herbivores in the Mara Region of Kenya

Riparian savanna habitats grazed by hippopotamus or livestock experience seasonal ecological stresses through the depletion of herbaceous vegetation, and are often points of contacts and conflicts between herbivores, humans and their livestock. We investigated how hippopotamus and livestock grazing influence vegetation structure and cover and facilitate other wild herbivores in the Mara region of Kenya. We used 5 km-long transects, each with 13 plots measuring 10 × 10 m2, and which radiate from rivers in the Masai Mara National Reserve and adjoining community pastoral ranches. For each plot, we measured the height and visually estimated the percent cover of grasses, forbs, shrubs and bare ground, herbivore abundance and species richness. Our results showed that grass height was shortest closest to rivers in both landscapes, increased with increasing distance from rivers in the reserve, but was uniformly short in the pastoral ranches. Shifting mosaics of short grass lawns interspersed with patches of medium to tall grasses occurred within 2.5 km of the rivers in the reserve in areas grazed habitually by hippos. Hence, hippo grazing enhanced the structural heterogeneity of vegetation but livestock grazing had a homogenizing effect in the pastoral ranches. The distribution of biomass and the species richness of other ungulates with distance from rivers followed a quadratic pattern in the reserve, suggesting that hippopotamus grazing attracted more herbivores to the vegetation patches at intermediate distances from rivers in the reserve. However, the distribution of biomass and the species richness of other ungulates followed a linear pattern in the pastoral ranches, implying that herbivores avoided areas grazed heavily by livestock in the pastoral ranches, especially near rivers.

Prevalence of Trypanosoma sp. in cattle from Tanzania estimated by conventional PCR and loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP)

This study compared the prevalence of trypanosome infections estimated by PFR-loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) with conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests. One hundred forty eight cattle blood samples were collected from Robanda village, Mara region, Tanzania in April 2008. In conventional PCR, four sets of primers, specific for the detection of Trypanosoma sp., Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, Trypanosoma vivax, and Trypanozoon, as well as a modified LAMP were used. Conventional PCR detected no infection or up to 8, 1, and 3 infections with Trypanosoma congolense savannah, Trypanozoon, and T. vivax, respectively, whereas LAMP detected additional 44 Trypanozoon positive cases. Our results clearly indicate that the prevalence of Trypanozoon spp. in cattle in Robanda village estimated by PFR-LAMP (30.4%) was significantly higher than the estimates by PCR assays (0.6-2%). As such, future studies should target epidemiological surveys of Trypanozoon and T. brucei rhodesiense infections in possible reservoir animals by LAMP to further elucidate the actual prevalence of these parasites.

Acceptability of medical male circumcision in the traditionally circumcising communities in Northern Tanzania.

BackgroundData from traditionally circumcising communities show that non-circumcised males and those circumcised in the medical settings are stigmatised. This is because traditional circumcision embodies local notions of bravery as anaesthetics are not used. This study was conducted to assess the acceptability of safe medical circumcision before the onset of sexual activity for HIV infection risk reduction in a traditionally circumcising community in Tanzania.MethodsA cross-sectional study was conducted among males and females aged 18-44 years in traditionally circumcising communities of Tarime District in Mara Region, North-eastern Tanzania. A face-to-face questionnaire was administered to females to collect information on the attitudes of women towards circumcision and the preferred age for circumcision. A similar questionnaire was administered to males to collect information on socio-demographic, preferred age for circumcision, factors influencing circumcision, client satisfaction, complications and beliefs surrounding the practice.ResultsResults were available for 170 males and 189 females. Of the males, 168 (98.8%) were circumcised and 61 (36.3%) of those circumcised had the procedure done in the medical setting. Of those interviewed, 165 (97.1%) males and 179 (94.7%) females supported medical male circumcision for their sons. Of these, 107 (64.8%) males and 130 (72.6%) females preferred prepubertal medical male circumcision (12 years or less). Preference for prepubertal circumcision was significantly associated with non-Kurya ethnic group, circumcision in the medical setting and residence in urban areas for males in the adjusted analysis. For females, preference for prepubertal circumcision was significantly associated non-Kurya ethnic group and being born in urban areas in the adjusted analysis.ConclusionsThere is a shift of preference from traditional male circumcision to medical male circumcision in this traditionally circumcising population. However, this preference has not changed the circumcision practices in the communities because of the community social pressure. Male circumcision national program should take advantage of this preference of medical male circumcision by introducing safe and affordable circumcision services and mobilising communities in a culturally sensitive manner to take up circumcision services.

Continuing wildlife population declines and range contraction in the Mara region of Kenya during 1977–2009

Populations of many wild ungulate species in Africa are in decline largely because of land-use changes and other human activities. Analyses that document these declines and advance our understanding of their underlying causes are fundamental to effective management and conservation of wild ungulates. We analyzed temporal trends in wildlife and livestock population abundances in the Mara region of Kenya. We found that wildlife populations in the Mara region declined progressively after 1977, with few exceptions. Populations of almost all wildlife species have declined to a third or less of their former abundance both in the protected Masai Mara National Reserve and in the adjoining pastoral ranches. Human influences appeared to be the fundamental cause. Besides reinforced anti-poaching patrols, the expansion of cultivation, settlements and fences and livestock stocking levels on the pastoral ranches need to be regulated to avoid further declines in the wildlife resource.

The effects of pastoralism and protection on lion behaviour, demography and space use in the Mara Region of Kenya

Contraction of their historic geographic ranges and conflicts with humans underpins declines in large carnivore populations worldwide. These declines, which characterize pastoral systems where carnivores, people and livestock live in close contact, may be paralleled by changes in carnivore behaviour. We investigated this by comparing the behaviour, demography and space-use of three lion (Panthera leo ) prides in the protected Masai Mara National Reserve and the adjoining Koyiaki pastoral ranch in southwestern Kenya during 2005–2006. The mean times lions were inactive was similar between the three prides except when the ranch lions were severely disturbed and became more nocturnal and inactive. The reserve lions ate their kills on open plains and returned to them often but the ranch lions did so only inside bushes and abandoned unfinished kills during a drought in 2005. The reserve lions spent most of their time on open plains while the ranch lions did so in bushes and woodlands. Activity budgets were similar between the prides regardless of land use. Adult lions altered not so much the type but the spatial location and timing of their behaviour on the pastoral ranches relative to the reserve.We discuss the implications of these findings for lion conservation on pastoral lands.

The Effects of Pastoralism and Protection on Lion Behaviour, Demography and Space use in the Mara Region of Kenya

Contraction of their historic geographic ranges and conflicts with humans underpins declines in large carnivore populations worldwide. These declines, which characterize pastoral systems where carnivores, people and livestock live in close contact, may be paralleled by changes in carnivore behaviour. We investigated this by comparing the behaviour, demography and space-use of three lion (Panthera leo ) prides in the protected Masai Mara National Reserve and the adjoining Koyiaki pastoral ranch in southwestern Kenya during 2005–2006. The mean times lions were inactive was similar between the three prides except when the ranch lions were severely disturbed and became more nocturnal and inactive. The reserve lions ate their kills on open plains and returned to them often but the ranch lions did so only inside bushes and abandoned unfinished kills during a drought in 2005. The reserve lions spent most of their time on open plains while the ranch lions did so in bushes and woodlands. Activity budgets were similar between the prides regardless of land use. Adult lions altered not so much the type but the spatial location and timing of their behaviour on the pastoral ranches relative to the reserve.We discuss the implications of these findings for lion conservation on pastoral lands.

Population trend and distribution of the Vulnerable common hippopotamus Hippopotamus amphibius in the Mara Region of Kenya

AbstractThe common hippopotamus Hippopotamus amphibius can significantly influence the dynamics of ecosystems and engender serious conflicts with people but, in Kenya, one of the species strongholds, it has been little studied or monitored. We surveyed the hippopotamus population in the Masai Mara National Reserve and the adjoining pastoral ranches in 2006 using foot counts along 155.3 km of the main rivers. We counted 4,170 hippopotamuses in 171 schools. Comparisons with earlier surveys suggest that this population increased by 169.6% between 1971 and 1980 within the reserve and, although it did not increase within the reserve during 1980–2006, it increased by 359.4% outside the reserve during this period against a background of deteriorating habitat conditions. The overall density in 2006 was 26.9 hippopotamuses km-1 of river, equivalent to a biomass of 26,677 kg km-1 of river. The ratio of calves to 100 adults was 9:100 inside the reserve, 10:100 outside the reserve and 6:100 along tributaries of the Mara River, implying that the population is either increasing or that its spatial distribution is being compressed because of range contraction. The apparent increase in the hippopotamus population contrasts with marked contemporaneous declines in the populations of most other large mammalian herbivore species in the Reserve. We discuss possible reasons underlying the increase in the hippopotamus population.

Bender Shetler, Jan. — Telling Our Own Stories

The present volume by the historian Jan Bender Shetler is a publication of the African Sources for the African History Series whose purpose is to cover the history of the African continent. Contrary to West, Southern, and Central Africa, publications of historical texts about East Africa are very limited. TellingOurOwnStories tries to remedy this lack of historical data. It presents a large collection of written local stories from the South Mara region of Tanzania collected by the author hers...

Can VISION 2020 be implemented in rural government settings? Findings from two programmes in Tanzania

To generate information on essential components and the cost recovery potential of VISION 2020 programmes in rural Africa. We took a structured approach to planning, training, implementation and supervision of programmes in Singida and Mara regions, Tanzania involving both government and non-government partners. Extensive mentoring was provided to monitor activities and costs. Annual numbers of patients receiving eye care increased sevenfold, cataract surgeries by a factor of 2.6 and spectacles dispensed by a factor of 16. Running costs were shared; the government provided 40-60%, non-government organisations (NGOs) 25-45%, and patient fees 15%. Comprehensive eye care can be delivered with cooperation among partners. However, continued coordination and cooperation from government and NGOs are critical to reach VISION 2020 goals.

Ethnopharmacological survey of the Bunda district, Tanzania: Plants used to treat infectious diseases

An ethnobotanical study was carried out in six villages in the Bunda district, Mara Region, Tanzania, where the use of plants still has a special meaning to the society, in the treatment of various diseases. Information was obtained from the traditional healers and other experienced persons, having some knowledge on medicinal plants. Fifty-two plants were reported for use in the treatment of various infectious diseases. These plants belong to 29 families, with Papilionaceae being the most represented. Leaves ranked the highest, especially for use in topical preparations. Oral administration was the most frequently used route of administration. Twenty-one percent of the recorded plants were reported for treating venereal diseases, with syphilis and gonorrhea being the most commonly mentioned. Information providers requested feedback with regard to the plants proven scientifically to be toxic in order to avoid risks while offering their services. From this work it was found out that, people in this area commonly use medicinal plants with trust they have built on the curative outcome witnessed. As the first ethnobotanical study in Bunda district recording 52 plants in a small area covered, publication of this work is expected to open up more studies to record many useful medicinal plants unfolded.

Epidemiology of measles in Tanzania: A hospital-based survey of measles morbidity and mortality

Objective: To estimate measles morbidity and mortality in selected regions on mainland Tanzania Design: Cross-sectional study Setting: Hospital-based review of existing records on measles morbidity and mortality in the selected district hospitals on mainland Tanzania. Methods: Review of records on measles morbidity and mortality was performed using a standard instrument adopted from the Ministry of Health. The instrument was pre-tested before use. Researchers were recruited from the Muhimbili University College of Health Sciences and were trained on how to collect data from the hospital records. Ethical clearance was obtained from the Ministry of Health in Dar es Salaam. Upon arrival in the respective regions, the researchers recruited and trained local research assistants on methods of data collection. Completed questionnaire forms were entered into a computer and data cleaning was done before data analysis. Results: Measles was found to occur in individuals of over 15 years of age and beyond. Overall 35% (N=2277) of all measles cases were reported from the Iringa region while Mara region had the lowest number of cases. On the other hand Shinyanga had the highest case fatality rate (6%) compared with other regions. Mortality was higher in children below two years of age and among individuals who had no history of measles vaccination. Conclusion: We conclude that despite high measles vaccination coverage, measles is still a public health problem in Tanzania. Efforts should be made to give several booster doses up to the age of 15 years.

The power of AIDS: kinship, mobility and the valuing of social and ritual relationships in Tanzania

The HIV/AIDS epidemic in Africa has become a test case of the effects of globalisation, in that it demonstrates how international processes may affect regional life situations and how 'the local' can simultaneously develop in its own way, through the processes of appropriating, modifying, and resisting global influences. Drawing on fieldwork in Tanzania, I show how the Luo in the Mara region define HIV/AIDS as an outcome of modernity and globalisation, which to them have become embodied in processes of migration, the collapse of generational and gender hierarchies, and an increased immorality in contemporary society. While social and moral ruptures in Mara become further condensed in tensions between lineages and AIDS-sick relatives, mourning and burial rituals (including widow cleansing), disputes over inheritance rights, and the attribution of illness to the breaking of a taboo (chira) have become essential for negotiating and maintaining social and cultural relationships in an era of AIDS. In conclusion I argue that the concepts of vitality and moral practice may assist an understanding of how different social actors in sub-Saharan Africa have responded to the breakdowns associated with increased suffering and death, and to describe some social and moral developments observable in the context of internationally driven public health campaigns in the region.

Bayesian spatial analysis and disease mapping: tools to enhance planning and implementation of a schistosomiasis control programme in Tanzania

To predict the spatial distributions of Schistosoma haematobium and S. mansoni infections to assist planning the implementation of mass distribution of praziquantel as part of an on-going national control programme in Tanzania. Bayesian geostatistical models were developed using parasitological data from 143 schools. In the S. haematobium models, although land surface temperature and rainfall were significant predictors of prevalence, they became non-significant when spatial correlation was taken into account. In the S. mansoni models, distance to water bodies and annual minimum temperature were significant predictors, even when adjusting for spatial correlation. Spatial correlation occurred over greater distances for S. haematobium than for S. mansoni. Uncertainties in predictions were examined to identify areas requiring further data collection before programme implementation. Bayesian geostatistical analysis is a powerful and statistically robust tool for identifying high prevalence areas in a heterogeneous and imperfectly known environment.

Environmental assessment of mercury contamination from the Rwamagasa artisanal gold mining centre, Geita District, Tanzania

This study presents the results of an environmental assessment of mercury (Hg) contamination in the Rwamagasa artisanal gold mining area, northwest Tanzania, and the potential downstream dispersion along the River Malagarasi to Lake Tanganyika. At the time of sampling, generally low concentrations of Hg (<0.05 mg/kg) occurred in most cultivated soils although higher Hg (0.05–9.2 mg/kg) was recorded in urban soils and vegetable plot soils where these are impacted by Hg-contaminated water and sediment derived from mineral processing activities. Hg in vegetable and grain samples is mostly below the detection limit of 0.004 mg/kg Hg, apart from 0.007 and 0.092 mg/kg Hg in two yam samples and 0.011 to 0.013 mg/kg Hg in three rice samples. The standardized (i.e., standardized to 10 cm length) Hg concentrations in Clarias spp. increase from about 0.01 mg Hg/kg for the River Malagarasi delta to 0.07, 0.2, and 1.6 mg/kg, respectively, for the Rwamagasa ‘background’, moderately and most contaminated sites. For piscivorous ( Lates, Brycinus, and Hydrocynus spp.), insectivorous ( Barbus spp.), and planktivorous ( Haplochromis spp.) fish species, the 10-cm standardized Hg concentrations increase from about 0.006 mg/kg for the River Malagarasi-Lake Tanganyika area to 0.5 and 3.5 mg/kg, respectively, for the Rwamagasa moderately and most contaminated sites. The low concentrations of Hg in fish from the Malagarasi River delta and Lake Tanganyika indicate that Hg contamination from the Rwamagasa area does not have a readily discernible impact on the biota of Lake Tanganyika. Many of the fish samples from Rwamagasa exceed guidelines for human consumption (0.5 mg/kg) as well as the WHO recommended limit for vulnerable groups (0.2 mg/kg). Tissue total Hg (THg) of all fish collected from the River Malagarasi-Lake Tanganyika subarea is well below these guidelines. Potential human exposure through consumption of 300 g/day of rice grown on Hg-contaminated soils is 5.5 μg/week. Consumption of 250 g Nile perch ( Lates spp.), 500 g tilapia ( Oreochromis spp.), and 250 g of catfish ( Clarias spp.) each week would result in an intake of 65 μg Hg/week for people consuming only fish from the Mara and Mwanza regions of Lake Victoria and 116 μg Hg/week for people in the Rwamagasa area consuming tilapia and Nile perch from Lake Victoria and catfish from mining-impacted streams. This is lower than the Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake (PTWI) of 300 μg for Hg in the diet set by the WHO and the FAO. Inadvertent ingestion of soil containing 9 mg Hg/kg at a rate of 80 mg/day would give an additional estimated weekly intake of 5 μg THg, whereas the persistent and purposeful consumption of soil (geophagia) at a rate of 26 g soil/day would produce an additional chemical exposure of 230 μg Hg/day.

The Rock Art of Mara Region, Tanzania

The Rock Art of Mara Region, Tanzania

Water quality management and sustainability: the experience of Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project (LVEMP)––Tanzania

Human health and development are threatened in many parts of the world either from lack of water or poor water quality. Human development has partially contributed to water quality deterioration. In Tanzania, for instance, rapid population growth that caused expansion of agricultural activities, livestock keeping, deforestation, biomass burning and human settlement have exerted pressures within the Lake Victoria Basin. These developments have led to land degradation and increased levels of pollution mainly from non-point sources. The Governments of Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda initiated the program of Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project, (LVEMP), in 1994 to rehabilitate the Lake Ecosystem through restoration and conservation of biodiversity in the lake as well as within the catchment. This paper presents the five years (1997–2002) experience of LVEMP in Tanzania on the issues of water quality; focusing on water pollution, water quality monitoring and LVEMP strategies to accomplish water quality management in the Lake Zone (Kagera, Mara and Mwanza regions). The findings show that non-point source pollution from agricultural practices; as well as unplanned urban settlements contribute more to siltation and eutrophication of the of Lake Victoria than that from point source pollution. Recommendations for water quality management and sustainability are presented.

Telling Our Own Stories: Local Histories from South Mara, Tanzania

In this collection of ethnic group histories, written by authors from the Mara Region of Tanzania, local people tell their stories as a way to inspire development that builds on the strengths of the past. It combines histories from the small, but closely related, ethnic groups of Ikizu, Sizaki, Ikoma, Ngoreme, Nata, Ishenyi and Tatoga in South Mara, east of Lake Victoria and west of Serengeti National Park. Many of the authors compiled their stories by meeting with groups of elders. They were concerned to preserve history for the next generation who had not taken the time to learn the stories orally. The stories were written in Swahili and translated into English with annotations and an introduction so that readers not familiar with this region might also share in the experience. It also includes transcriptions of oral interviews with some of the same stories to get a sense of the ongoing conversions about the past. This collection makes local history told in a local idiom accessible to students of African history interested in social memory and the creation of ethnicity.

The Politics of Publishing Oral Sources from the Mara Region, Tanzania

The intense scholarly debate concerning the shift from orality to literacy has not often directly concerned African historians in spite of the fact that many work closely with oral sources. In the process of publishing a series of locally-written histories, I discovered that transforming oral tradition into written form is ultimately political. It raised a number of important ethical dilemmas for me as a scholar and brought to my attention the power relations inherent in these transactions. Oral knowledge and its transformation is not neutral or entirely benevolent. I found out that the change from an oral to a written knowledge base takes power out of the hands of community elders and puts it into the public domain, where literate men have the advantage and where community security may be vulnerable. As scholars we need to face our own involvement in these political processes, even if we cannot ultimately control them.

Land Tenure Policies, Maasai Traditions, and Wildlife Conservation in Kenya

This article discusses land ownership trends adjacent to Masai Mara National Reserve (MMNR). In recent years, the government of Kenya has adopted a policy promoting subdivision of group ranches in this region. This policy has serious implications for the Maasai people and natural resources within the Mara region. We examine land settlement patterns and the attitudes and beliefs of Maasai people toward subdivision of communal lands. Since, in general, cultivation is far less compatible with wildlife than grazing, any changes toward cultivation will have significant implications for MMNR and the wildlife that utilize the reserve and adjacent group ranches. We believe that the government can ensure conservation under the individual tenure system by encouraging wildlife-based enterprises and conservation easements, and by transferring wildlife management responsibilities to Maasai landowners.