Maquoketa River Research Articles

Factors Associated with Detection and Distribution of Native Brook Trout and Introduced Brown Trout in the Driftless Area of Iowa

AbstractFish populations at the fringe of their geographic range often inhabit marginal habitats and are vulnerable to ecological disturbances, such as species invasion, land cover conversion, and climate change. The Driftless Area of northeastern Iowa, USA represents the southwestern edge of the native range of Brook Trout Salvelinus fontinalis, where endemic populations have been greatly reduced due to habitat degradation and introduced Brown Trout Salmo trutta. Therefore, documenting Brook Trout occurrence patterns at the southern tip of their range may prove useful for the conservation of peripheral populations. We fitted single‐species occupancy models at multiple spatial scales to estimate the relative effects of biotic (e.g., Brown Trout density) and habitat (instream, riparian, and watershed) variables on Brook and Brown Trout occupancy to predict their current distribution in the Iowa Driftless Area. Species occurrence and physical habitat data were collected at 138 stream segments of the Upper Iowa, Yellow, and Little Maquoketa River watersheds (8‐digit hydrologic unit codes) during May–September in 2018 and 2019. Brook Trout occupancy was low (19 of 138 sites) and affected by local (instream and riparian) habitat covariates, particularly August–September stream temperatures, but no adverse effects of Brown Trout density were detected. Brown Trout occupied 54% of streams (74 of 138 sites), and occupancy was influenced by a combination of local‐scale (mean stream velocity, percentage of run macrohabitat, and August–September stream temperatures) and catchment‐scale (percent forested land cover and upstream catchment area) habitat variables. Our results provide evidence that instream thermal conditions are a critical determinant of Brook Trout distribution, while Brown Trout exhibit plasticity in habitat suitability and increased colonization in areas where they are introduced. Given the dependence of Brook Trout on cold stream temperatures, the projected loss of thermally suitable habitats due to climate change may facilitate their replacement by naturalized Brown Trout at the southwestern extent of their range.

Robert A. Millikan and the Oil Drop Experiment

In 2018, we celebrated the sesquicentennial birthday of Robert A. Millikan, a Nobel laureate in physics who worked among the greats such as Niels Bohr and Albert Einstein. His name, however, is perhaps not as widely known. He was born in 1868 in Morrison, IL, and moved with his family to the small town of Maquoketa, IA, at age nine. It was in this tiny Iowan town that Millikan spent his foundational years. He passed the time playing baseball and cooling off in the Maquoketa River. Millikan’s interest in experimentation showed early on. Local changes to the rules of baseball sparked controversy over a new type of pitch: the curve ball. Silas Millikan, Robert’s father, was a college-educated man and staunchly maintained that the curve ball was simply an optical illusion, but young Millikan knew better. With the help of brothers and cousins, Millikan set up a simple experiment to prove the point. Millikan and his family set up three poles in a line out in the yard and repeatedly pitched curveballs at one another. With careful observation, Silas could see the ball travel straight along the first two poles, then visibly curve and land on the opposite side of the third. This experiment was a small victory for Millikan, and only foreshadowed his later investment in scientific study.

Increased Precipitation as the Main Driver of Increased Streamflow in Tile-Drained Watersheds of the Upper Midwestern U.S.

Abstract. Recent increased streamflow (Q) and its associated impacts on water quality have frequently been linked to land use and land cover (LULC) changes such as increased tile drainage, cultivation of prairies, and adoption of soybean () in modern-day cropping systems. However, many previous studies have assumed minimal to no change in precipitation during their study period. A recent analysis of streamflow records from 29 HUC 8 (Hydrologic Unit Code 008) watersheds in Iowa and Minnesota showed that increased precipitation instead of LULC change was the main driver of increased streamflow. The analysis was done through hierarchical regression of annual streamflow as a function of annual precipitation for the periods prior to 1975 (pre-change period) and after 1976 (post-change period). A statistical shift in annual relationship from the pre- to post-change period was assumed to be an indication of LULC changes, whereas a lack of statistical shift suggested no change in the relationship and higher flows were mainly driven by increased precipitation. In this article, we further show that annual streamflow and annual baseflow were influenced not only by the current year’s precipitation but also by precipitation in the preceding one to two years, and this effect was manifested through increased or decreased stored soil water. The present analysis was done using backward stepwise hierarchical regression with the natural log of annual streamflow as the predictor variable and three to five years of precipitation, the area under soybean production, a group variable simulating pre- and post-change periods, and its interaction terms with precipitation and soybean area as the explanatory variables. This analysis also showed that precipitation was the main driver of annual streamflow or baseflow; however, for some rivers, the area under soybean production and group differences were also significant variables, although at a much smaller confidence level. Annual streamflow testing was done for the Blue Earth River, Redwood River, Cottonwood River, and Whetstone River watersheds in Minnesota and the Maquoketa River and Raccoon River watersheds in Iowa. Annual baseflow testing was done only on the Redwood River and Raccoon River watersheds. Using similar backward stepwise regressions, the analysis showed that changes in Ln(monthly streamflow) were linked to stored soil water through the preceding months’ and years’ precipitation. On a daily scale, comparison of slopes of the hydrograph’s rising limb for two large precipitation events in 1957 (pre-change period) and 1993 (post-change period) showed less watershed connectivity due to LULC changes such as drainage, a finding that is contrary to what has been suggested in the literature. A similar comparison of the falling limb slopes for a given streamflow condition showed similar slope values in pre-change (1947) and post-change (1991) periods, thus suggesting no changes in storage capacity of the watershed as a result of LULC changes. Further comparisons of high-level streamflows (Q > 100 m3 s-1) as a function of average daily storm precipitation showed no effect of drainage between the pre- and post-change periods. A statistical analysis of the relationship between the falling limb slopes as a function of streamflow for low (dQ/dt < -5 m3 s-1 d-1) and medium (dQ/dt varying from -2 to -5 m3 s-1 d-1) slopes also showed no discernable change in the retentive capacity of the Redwood River watershed between the pre- and post-change periods. The above evaluations at three temporal scales further supported our previous conclusion that increased precipitation in recent years is the main driver of the increased streamflow in tile-drained watersheds of the upper Midwestern U.S., and the impacts of LULC change on streamflow characteristics were minimal. We conclude that any comparison of daily, monthly, or annual streamflow and baseflow to evaluate LULC change impacts must be done at comparable stored soil water conditions or with accounting of precipitation from previous days, months, and years. Keywords: Baseflow, Hydrograph, Land use land cover, Precipitation, Streamflow, Tile drainage.

Historical Changes in Fish Assemblage Structure in Midwestern Nonwadeable Rivers

Historical change in fish assemblage structure was evaluated in the mainstems of the Des Moines, Iowa, Cedar, Wapsipinicon, and Maquoketa rivers, in Iowa. Fish occurrence data were compared in each river between historical and recent time periods to characterize temporal changes among 126 species distributions and assess spatiotemporal patterns in faunal similarity. A resampling procedure was used to estimate species occurrences in rivers during each assessment period and changes in species occurrence were summarized. Spatiotemporal shifts in species composition were analyzed at the river and river section scale using cluster analysis, pairwise Jaccard's dissimilarities, and analysis of multivariate beta dispersion. The majority of species exhibited either increases or declines in distribution in all rivers with the exception of several “unknown” or inconclusive trends exhibited by species in the Maquoketa River. Cluster analysis identified temporal patterns of similarity among fish assemblages in the Des Moines, Cedar, and Iowa rivers within the historical and recent assessment period indicating a significant change in species composition. Prominent declines of backwater species with phytophilic spawning strategies contributed to assemblage changes occurring across river systems.

FISH ASSEMBLAGE RELATIONSHIPS WITH PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND PRESENCE OF DAMS IN THREE EASTERN IOWA RIVERS

ABSTRACTFish assemblages in rivers of the Midwestern United States are an important component of the region's natural resources and biodiversity. We characterized the physical environment and presence of dams in a series of reaches in three eastern Iowa rivers tributary to the Mississippi River and related these characteristics to the fish assemblages present. Some physical characteristics were similar among the 12 study reaches, whereas others differed substantially. We found a total of 68 species across the 12 study reaches; 56 in the Turkey River, 51 in the Maquoketa River and 50 in the Wapsipinicon River. Seventeen species could be described as ‘downstream‐distributed’; 15 being found only in the lowest reach of one or more rivers and the other two being found only in the lowest reaches or two or more contiguous reaches including the lowest reach. Two species could be described as ‘upstream‐distributed’, being found only in an uppermost reach. Non‐metric multidimensional scaling ordination illustrated similarities among reaches, and five physical variables were significantly correlated with assemblage similarities. Catchment area and number of dams between reaches and the Mississippi River were strongly correlated with assemblage similarities, but the directions of their effects were opposite. Catchment area and number of dams were confounded. The collective evidence to date suggests that the pervasiveness of dams on rivers significantly alters fish assemblages, making underlying patterns of species change and relationships with naturally varying and human‐influenced physical characteristics along a river's course difficult to discern. Published 2013. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.

Evaluating Hydrologic Response of an Agricultural Watershed for Watershed Analysis

This paper describes the hydrological assessment of an agricultural watershed in the Midwestern United States through the use of a watershed scale hydrologic model. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model was applied to the Maquoketa River watershed, located in northeast Iowa, draining an agriculture intensive area of about 5,000 km2. The inputs to the model were obtained from the Environmental Protection Agency’s geographic information/database system called Better Assessment Science Integrating Point and Nonpoint Sources (BASINS). Meteorological input, including precipitation and temperature from six weather stations located in and around the watershed, and measured streamflow data at the watershed outlet, were used in the simulation. A sensitivity analysis was performed using an influence coefficient method to evaluate surface runoff and baseflow variations in response to changes in model input hydrologic parameters. The curve number, evaporation compensation factor, and soil available water capacity were found to be the most sensitive parameters among eight selected parameters. Model calibration, facilitated by the sensitivity analysis, was performed for the period 1988 through 1993, and validation was performed for 1982 through 1987. The model was found to explain at least 86% and 69% of the variability in the measured streamflow data for calibration and validation periods, respectively. This initial hydrologic assessment will facilitate future modeling applications using SWAT to the Maquoketa River watershed for various watershed analyses, including watershed assessment for water quality management, such as total maximum daily loads, impacts of land use and climate change, and impacts of alternate management practices.

Alternative practices for sediment and nutrient loss control on livestock farms in northeast Iowa

A number of structural and managerial practices were evaluated to determine their environmental and economic effectiveness on animal feeding operations in the upper Maquoketa river watershed in northeast Iowa. Economic and environmental model simulations were performed over a 30-year time horizon for each of these practices using extensive data collected from the study area. Results from model simulations indicate that while most of the practices (including terraces, no till farming, contouring, and in-field contour buffers) would reduce sediment and sediment-bound nutrient losses significantly, they have very little benefit on soluble nitrogen and phosphorus losses. This is primarily because the increased infiltration rates resulting from those practices leads to greater losses of subsurface and return flow in the heavily tile-drained watershed. Nonetheless, when these practices are combined with judicious commercial fertilizer use, appreciable reductions in soluble nutrient losses are also indicated, and improvements in sediment loss are maintained. Terraces are indicated to provide the greatest sediment loss reduction (over 60% reduction) at the watershed level, relative to the status quo. Accordingly, installed terraces also lead to the highest simulated reductions in organic nitrogen and organic phosphorus (over 70%). Predicted reductions in sediment for most of the other practices ranged from almost 30% to about 45%. Corresponding reductions in simulated organic nitrogen and organic phosphorus losses range from about 35% to almost 50%. Economic model simulations also show varied impacts. In general, costs of sediment reducing practices range from about $6 per hectare of implemented area with contouring to almost $65 per hectare when terraces are installed on high-slope cropland. Terraces also indicated the greatest sediment loss reduction. On the other hand, judicious commercial fertilizer use is indicated to offset these costs by as much as roughly $50 per hectare. The study indicates that programs that offer producers some flexibility in choosing practice combinations may lead to the best outcomes.

INCREASED BASEFLOW IN IOWA OVER THE SECOND HALF OF THE 20TH CENTURY1

ABSTRACT: Historical trends in annual discharge characteristics were evaluated for 11 gauging stations located throughout Iowa. Discharge records from nine eight‐digit hydrologic unit code (HUC‐8) watersheds were examined for the period 1940 to 2000, whereas data for two larger river systems (Cedar and Des Moines Rivers) were examined for a longer period of record (1903 to 2000). In nearly all watersheds evaluated, annual base flow, annual minimum flow, and the annual base flow percentage significantly increased over time. Some rivers also exhibited increasing trends in total annual discharge, whereas only the Maquoketa River had significantly decreased annual maximum flows. Regression of stream discharge versus precipitation indicated that more precipitation is being routed into streams as base flow than as storm flow in the second half of the 20th Century. Reasons for the observed stream flow trends are hypothesized to include improved conservation practices, greater artificial drainage, increasing row crop production, and channel incision. Each of these reasons is consistent with the observed trends, and all are likely responsible to some degree in most watersheds.

Preferred sources and channels of soil and water conservation information among farmers in three midwestern US watersheds

This research examines farmers’ use of various sources and channels of conservation information in three midwestern US watersheds. A primary objective was to determine perceptual and farm structure factors influencing the use of particular information sources for farm-level decision-making. Data were collected from 1011 farm operators, the Maquoketa River watershed in east-central Iowa, the Lower Minnesota River watershed in southeast Minnesota, and the Darby Creek watershed in central Ohio. Respondents were asked to indicate frequency of use for 22 sources of conservation information identified from the literature and to rank the perceived importance of 11 of the most common communication channels for accessing agricultural information. Factor analysis was used to reduce the number of information sources to a smaller set of variables that explained much of the variance of the original data set. Selected elements of diffusion, risk communication, and farm structure theories were used to interpret the factor loadings and to identify predictors of information use. Regression analysis was used to test the communication source models developed for the overall data set and for each state. Descriptive findings revealed that farmers use multiple sources and channels when accessing soil and water conservation information. Substantial differences in information-use patterns were noted among the study watersheds. The results of the factor analysis showed that the 22 information sources could be categorized into six overarching groups based on their intercorrelation. The regression models were shown to vary widely in their predictive capacity, explaining from 1 to 29% of the total variance in source use. The variability noted among farmers’ information-use patterns and perceptions across the three study areas casts doubt on the value of broad-based or “shotgun” approaches for delivering agricultural information. The use of factor analysis has promise in future studies as a valuable tool for developing empirical measures of information use and improving measurement of key theoretical constructs in agricultural communication.

Citizen-Led Watershed Projects: Participatory Research and Environmental Adult Learning Along Iowa's Maquoketa River

The state of Iowa is first in the United States in corn, soybean, and hog production. It also has some of the most nutrient-rich rivers and streams in the world, which means that the waters are polluted with nitrogen and phosphorous, directly attributed both livestock and crop production. This nonpoint source of pollution is thought be a major contributor the Gulf of Mexico's hypoxia region--a dead zone of approximately 7,000 square miles where plant nutrients from the Mississippi River have depleted the Gulf's dissolved oxygen, which is necessary for fish and other aquatic life (Libra, 1998). These water quality create much tension between efforts enhance water quality and maintain the livelihood of farmers in Iowa. This tension is particularly keen among Iowa producers who tend be independent family farmers with smaller operations and limited resources. For example, recently proposed government regulations on small feedlots intended protect the environment will create financial hardships for family farmers, thereby strengthening the competitive advantage of large corporate feedlots by accelerating the consolidation of the beef and dairy industries in particular (ISU College of Agriculture, 2001). Iowa's Maquoketa River Basin typifies rural landscapes with family farms and small rural communities; 61,048 people live within its 1,879 square miles. The Maquoketa River is one of the largest sources of excess nutrients and sediment among the 13 major rivers along the upper Mississippi. In an effort heighten citizen awareness and participation in developing a comprehensive plan address these environmental problems, the Maquoketa River Project was initiated in 1997 promote citizen-led watershed councils in each of the river basin's 25 sub-watersheds. In 1999, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Region VII Water Quality Cooperative Agreement Funds were allocated to develop local leadership with long-term vision and commitment deal proactively with nonpoint source pollution issues (Maquoketa Quarterly Report, 1999, p. 1). Nonpoint source pollution tends be systemic within an ecosystem; therefore, it is much more difficult address than point source pollution. For example, within a watershed most, if not all, farmers are using fertilizers or other chemicals that contribute the degradation of the water system. In contrast, point source pollution might be a single factory that is dumping effluent into a stream. This type of pollution is easily identified in comparison nonpoint source pollution. The streams and creeks that comprise these sub-watersheds cross many farms involving many landowners. These farms and their enterprises often look dramatically different from each other. One farm may raise only corn and soybeans, another may have a dairy, a third might generate most of its income from a cow-calf operation, a fourth might include a small feedlot where 700-pound calves are finished 1,200 pounds ready for market, while a fifth may raise hogs. The purpose of the citizen councils is bring together all residents within these sub-watersheds through a participatory research and environmental adult education process so they can build and articulate their knowledge about their local ecosystem through data collection, problem identification, priority setting, and strategic action. As a group, these residents partner with technical staff from state and federal government agencies and Iowa State University Extension evaluate the problem, then collectively develop possible solutions land-use problems that are sources of water pollution. This article presents a phenomenological case study of the Maquoketa River Project. Our framework for community problem solving is different from the traditional expert-driven, technical solutions model typically offered by government agencies and universities. …

A Comparison of Day and Night Electrofishing: Size Structure and Catch per Unit Effort for Smallmouth Bass

Abstract Catch per hour of effort (CPUE) of all smallmouth bass Micropterus dolomieui; CPUE of small ( 280 mm) smallmouth bass; and proportional stock density (PSD = 100 [number of quality-length fish/number of stocklength fish]; stock length = 180 mm or longer) were compared between day and night electrofishing samples. Data were from catches of smallmouth bass in the Maquoketa River, Iowa, during spring 1978. The CPUE for smallmouth bass was significantly higher for nighttime electrofishing (P < 0.01) than for daytime electrofishing. The CPUE for sampling at night for all length ranges of smallmouth bass was also significantly higher (P < 0.01) than during the day, and the PSD calculated from the daytime catch was 27, whereas it was 33 for electrofishing at night, a 22% increase. Night electrofishing in rivers is recommended for this species to improve gear efficiency, reduce the time necessary to make population estimates, and increase sam...

Effects of Variable Streamflows on Growth of Smallmouth Bass in the Maquoketa River, Iowa

Abstract The objective of this investigation was to compare instantaneous growth rates (G) of age-1 through -4 smallmouth bass Micropterus dolomieui to flow (Q) in the Maquoketa River, Iowa. The study site was below an inactive hydroelectric dam. Instantaneous growth rates varied primarily as a function of body size. Residual variation in growth had a clear unimodal distribution with respect to Q for age-1 fish. The relationship between G and Q was best described by logarithmic transformation of the deviations of Q from optimum flow. Nonlinear regression techniques were used to estimate optimal values of Q; the optimum was 10 m 3/s for age-1 fish. No clear relationships were evident for older age-classes (2-4) examined individually. We suspect that deleterious effects on the invertebrate prey (primarily aquatic insects) of young smallmouth bass is the best explanation for negative effects on growth when flow deviates from optimal values. Larger (and older) smallmouth bass have a more varied diet and large...

Production of Smallmouth Bass in the Maquoketa River, Iowa

ABSTRACT Production of smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieui) of ages I through V were calculated in the Maquoketa River, Iowa, from 1978 through 1982. Total production of smallmouth bass ranged from 6.4 kg/ha during 1981 to 15.0 kg/ha in 1979; mean production for the five years was 10.1 kg/ha (S.D. = 3.53). Age III smallmouth bass contributed 41% of the total production over the five years while age II fish were second at 27%. The mean production/biomass ratio of 0.34 was found to be lower than most warm-water fish species.

Evaluation of a 12.0-inch Minimum Length Limit on Smallmouth Bass in the Maquoketa River, Iowa

Abstract A 12.0-in minimum length limit for smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieui) was assessed from 1980 to 1982 on a segment of the Maquoketa River, Iowa. The regulation was adopted in 1980 to control the harvest of bass, as recommended in an earlier investigation designed to identify management needs for smallmouth bass. Size structure of the bass population increased progressively, from a Proportional Stock Density of 14% in spring 1980 to 35% by the spring of 1982. However, a statistical analysis of seasonal changes indicated the improvement was not significant when compared to populations in years of no length limit. Total annual mortality of smallmouth bass averaged 53%, a reduction of 27% from previous years. Spring population densities of bass in the study area averaged 40 bass/acre (10.3 lbs/acre). A decline in bass population density and standing stock was noted, but poor year-class success in 1978, 1979, and 1981 was responsible; a substantial year class was not produced until 1982. No advers...

Population Characteristics of Smallmouth Bass in Five Iowa Streams and Management Recommendations

Abstract Smallmonth bass (Micropterus dolomieui) were studied in the Maqnoketa River and four other rivers in northeast Iowa from 1977 to 1979 to determine growth, population size, and age composition. The density and standing stocks of smallmouth bass were measured at two locations on the Maquoketa River, and an angler survey was conducted to determine harvest, catch rate, exploitation, age-class contribution, and size of bass caught by fishermen. Lengths of the smallmouth bass in two study areas on the Maquoketa River averaged 4.0, 7.1, 10.2, 12.8, 15.3, 16.8, 18.5, 19.3, 19.2, and 20.1 in at each annulus for ages I-X, respectively. Proportional Stock Density of bass from 1977 to 1979 averaged 30% in Area I and 20% in Area II. Populations were comprised primarily of bass less than 10.0 in long and ages I-III. Total annual mortality ranged from 62 to 84% for ages II-X, the average for the two areas being 71%. Spring population estimates in Area I averaged 61 bass/acre (4.1 lbs/acre) in 1977-1979; in Area...

Sedimentation Near Junction of Maquoketa and Mississippi Rivers

ABSTRACT Sediment samples indicate that the Maquoketa River has been, in the past, an important factor in the deposition that has taken place in the Mississippi River in a reach extending at least 4 miles below the junction of these streams. It is believed that the straightening of the tributary stream was an important factor in the increased deposition between 1930 and 1937 Computations show that in the reach of river studied approximately 30 per cent of the sediment was derived from the Maquoketa River.