Maoist Insurgency Research Articles

Researching armed groups with facilitating researchers: asymmetries, silences, and the extractive economies of research

ABSTRACT The findings from field research on armed actors reach wider audiences through single or multi-authored publications, but it is widely known that the research process involves engaging a large community of people on the ground. These expansive research networks are maintained by researchers for sustained engagement with conflict contexts and for mitigating risks in the field. However, this field research is a multi-directional and asymmetrical experience in knowledge production. There is an extractive political economy between contracting researchers from the Global North (including privileged researchers of the Global South) and facilitating researchers from conflict-affected areas in the Global South. Drawing from our insights and field research on the Maoist insurgency in the state of Jharkhand in India, we examine the contributions and impact of facilitating researchers upon fieldwork in terms of their roles and tasks and how their positionalities and embeddedness in armed insurgencies shape the research process and results. In this paper, we highlight how the three-way power dynamics between contracting and facilitating researchers, and the research subjects contribute to the hierarchies of knowledge production.

Construction of Ethnic Religious Borders, Cognitive Disruption and Resultant Suffering of People in Indian and Nepali Texts

Religious-ethnic diversity makes human society beautiful; however, the sensitive area can also be the site of potential conflict and violence. Researcher is interested in observing the politics how ethnic religious borders are constructed among harmoniously settled races, how due to cognitive disruption they turn into each others’ enemies, and as a result, the divisive strategy results in the suffering of people. The portrayal of politics staged on the ground of religious diversity in Indian partition literature and the utilization of ethnic diversity for the political benefits after 1990 political change followed by Maoist insurgency in Nepal have been explored for this study. Indian-Pakistani partition novels like Khushwant Singh’s The Train to Pakistan, Bhisham Sahni’s Tamas, Abdullah Hussein’s The Weary Generations, Bapsi Sidhwa’s Cracking India, and some secondary texts about ethno-politics that emerged after 1990 political change and accelerated during Maoist insurgency followed by promulgation of constitution through constituent assembly in Nepal, have been analyzed in detail. Textual data from primary literary texts have been exhaustively discussed and analyzed. Relevant critics have been quoted for justification of the argument. Affect theory and the theories of ethnic conflict provide the theoretical light for the analysis. The celebration of the nationalist historiography of India and Nepali unity in diversity, the aura of ethnic religious harmony and nation building, get replaced by ethnic politics resulting in internal political struggle comparable to colonial divisive strategy.

Contentious politics of welfare in rural India: The interplay between the Maoist insurgency and the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act

This paper examines whether the Indian government used the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) to counter the radical mobilization of rural poor by the Maoist Naxalite movement. Employing an original district-level dataset from 2006 to 2014 and the GLOCON database on political events, it adopts a quasi-experimental method to analyze the strategy's effectiveness. The findings suggest that the government targeted districts with higher rural mobilization using NREGA as a counter-insurgency tool. However, the Naxalites effectively countered this strategy. Analysis of journals from the factions Liberation and People's March shows that the Naxalites actively claimed benefits under NREGA, transforming it from a containment tool to a governmental concession. This study concludes that the government's strategy was unsuccessful due to the effective counter-strategy by the Naxalites.

Blended Legacies: Vietnamese and Other Foreign Influences on the FARC-EP

The article analyzes the phenomenon of blended legacies. It is defined as the local synthesis of foreign guerrilla warfare traditions that the FARC-EP adopted to gain the advantage in their own war. We focus on Vietnamese influence within FARC-EP. The text tracks three types of connections between the FARC-EP and the guerrilla warfare legacies: first, early influence of Vietnamese and Maoist guerrilla political, strategic and tactical literature, as well as Soviet influence through the Colombian Communist Party; second, training in Vietnamese methods from secondary and tertiary parties, particularly instruction the M-19 and ELN received in Cuba and El Salvador respectively that they later passed on to the FARC-EP; and third, direct training the FARC-EP received in Vietnam in 1990. The text also demonstrates the local synthesis through an analysis of the FARC-EP special forces development, as well as their use of improvised explosives.

Securing the peace or renegotiating the political settlement? Understanding popular support for post-conflict constitutions

ABSTRACT How do ordinary citizens view elite-driven, post-conflict constitutional reforms? Established theories emphasize the role of constitutional reform in both postwar democratization and preventing conflict resurgence. This article contends that emphasis on fostering political inclusion and settling conflicts resonates differently across post-conflict societies. Focusing on Nepal, this study draws on a survey implemented with over 1,000 respondents shortly after the ratification of the country’s constitution in 2015. The exploratory analysis shows that even when post-conflict constitutions grant greater rights to historically marginalized groups in absolute terms, they may still perceive that greater concessions would be possible; this makes such groups more likely to oppose the constitution and more likely to prefer extended negotiation periods. Conversely, Nepalis exposed to higher violence during the Maoist insurgency from 1996 to 2006 view the constitution as the conclusion of the peace process and are more supportive of the constitution and opposed to longer negotiation periods. The analysis further highlights that some excluded groups were less likely to learn about constitutional negotiations at all. We identify new pathways influencing the democratic legitimacy of post-conflict constitutions, offering insights for internal and external stakeholders involved in constitutional reform processes and their aftermath.

Traumatic Testimony of a Child in Vikal’s “A Pair of Innocent Eyes”: The Conflict Perspective on the Insurgency

This paper has analyzed Ramesh Vikal’s “A Pair of Innocent Eyes,” a story written on the background of ten-year-long Maoist insurgency by applying trauma theory. The paper attempts to find out how the narrator while presenting his or her traumatic testimony about a horrible event narrates it: either objectively elucidating all the incidents neutrally or demonizing some particular aspect, which is supposed to have created all the consequences of the nation-state that remained in chaos for more than a decade. If the testimony of historical events is narrated idealizing one and demonizing another group, it, later on, cannot be accepted as an authentic testimony and the condition of the victims of the events would be more aggravated as it cannot appease their tension. The ten-year-long insurgency has not only brought some great change in the nation-state, but it also has helped people narrativize the incidents from one angle which subsequently worsen the situation and the nation-state can delve into internal conflict once again after the most awaited comprehensive peace treaty between the rebel and the government.

Critical Analysis of the Nepali Army’s Counter Insurgency Campaign Against Maoist Insurgency in Nepal

Nepal witnessed an insurgency within its territory for a decade from 1996 to 2006. Nepali army, the national armed force, along with other security forces, conducted the counter-insurgency campaign within the broader campaign of the Nepalese government. This paper examines the growth of Maoist insurgency in Nepal, the government's initial response, and finally the army's campaign against the insurgents. Using the information presented in academic and government literature as well as the experience gained by the researcher himself, it concludes that the army was successful in tactical battles against the Maoists but could not gain complete victory at the strategic level. The paper also examines the challenges faced by the army during the campaign, and the wider concepts coming out from the overall critical analysis of the campaign.

The Role of Non-State Actors in Conflict Resolution: A Comparative Analysis of Peacebuilding Efforts in Colombia and Nepal

This paper examines the role of non-state actors in conflict resolution through a comparative analysis of peacebuilding efforts in Colombia and Nepal. Drawing upon the experiences of NGOs, civil society organizations, religious institutions, and community-based groups, the study explores similarities, differences, and lessons learned from these contexts. In Colombia, non-state actors have confronted political violence and drug trafficking, while in Nepal, they have addressed ethnic tensions and Maoist insurgency. Despite distinct challenges, non-state actors in both countries have contributed to fostering dialogue, promoting reconciliation, and advocating for human rights. The analysis highlights the importance of inclusive approaches, dialogue facilitation, and community resilience in promoting sustainable peace. Policy implications and recommendations emphasize the need for supportive legal frameworks, conflict prevention strategies, and inclusive peace processes to empower non-state actors and advance peacebuilding efforts.

Ethics of Memory in Manjushree Thapa’s Forget Kathmandu: An Elegy for Democracy

This paper is an attempt to explore the ethical use of memory in Manjushree Thapa’s Forget Kathmandu: An Elegy for Democracy (2005). In her book, Thapa critically observes the history of Modern Nepal and recounts the experiences of her visits to the war-ravaged regions of the Mid-Western hills during the Maoist insurgency. The study analyzes the narrative data from the text to see how the narrator remembers the impact of “bad politics” and the Maoist insurgency on the common people of the hinterlands of Karnali region. For this purpose, the study applies the memory theory of Avishai Margalit from The Ethics of Memory (2004). Margalit claims that too much memory is detrimental to the health of an individual as well as a society; so such excessive memory of traumatic experiences should be narrated and ventilated to bring about forgiveness and reconciliation. The paper contends that Manjushree Thapa in the selected text ‘condemns’ historical foul plays, attempts to reveal the anxieties of excessive thoughts induced by ‘bad politics’ and the civil war, at individual and collective levels, and contributes to healing and recovery. It recommends bringing the suppressed communal feelings from the ‘social unconscious’ into public discussion leading it to ‘social catharsis’ and reparation. Literature can play this role as a medium that will help society come out of ‘poisonous feelings’ like anger, hatred, and revenge, which ultimately contributes to the prevention of the repetition of violence.

Use of Middle Voice in Narrativizing Trauma in Bimal’s “The Lankuri Will Blossom Again”

This article analyzes Rajendra Bimal’s “The Lankuri Tree Will Blossom Again”, a story written on the background of the ten-year-long Maoist insurgency in relation to trauma theory, especially Dominick LaCapra’s concept of middle voice which elucidates the neutrality in narrativization of any traumatic past. The article tries to find out how the narrator while presenting his or her traumatic testimony about a horrible event narrates it - objectively elucidating all the incidents neutrally as a neutral observer of the event not aligning with any fighting groups which would subsequently help both groups to accept the testimony as their own and realize their past agony and purgate their foes. If the testimony of historical events is narrated idealizing one and demonizing another group, it, later on, cannot be accepted as an authentic one and the condition of the victims of the events would be more aggravated as it cannot appease their tension. The testimony of the ten-year-long insurgency by any neutral observer can help many people narrativize their experience in the written form.

Politics of Memory and Trauma in Parashu Pardhan’s Sitas - 23 and Padmabati Singh’s The Silence of Violence

The paper attempts to analyze the cultural politics of memory and trauma in Parashu Pardhan’s “Sitas - 23” and Padmabati Singh’s “The Silence of Violence.” In doing so, the paper, as an interpretive inquiry, utilizes as its analytical tools, insights from the theorists such as Dominick Lacapra, Cathy Caruth, Avishai Margalit, Geoffrey Hartman on psychological trauma and the politics of memory and trauma. As a qualitative inquiry, the paper is based, largely on, secondary sources such as books, journal articles and online sources. The purpose of this study, rather than discover new things, is to offer new interpretations on the topic which has been often ignored in the existing state of art. These storis recount the experiences of trauma and the narrativization against the Nepalese Maoists during the “People’s War.” The point of departure, taken in this paper, is that the memory of the stories is contaminated by the cultural ideologies during the Maoist Insurgency (sometimes termed as People’s War). Memories of the characters represented in the stories, thus, takes an ethical turn and becomes a part of the larger ideological politics. Their narrativization of the ideology-contaminated traumatic memory uses the language of demonization.

The Persistence of Change in Political Systems in Nepal: Causes and Consequence

This research is based on examining the enduring nature of change within political systems in Nepal, including its numerous manifestations, changing structures, and relevance in contemporary society. The research encompasses a variety of secondary sources, which are further reinforced by primary data sources. This research investigates the process of political system transition and its associated features using qualitative data analysis. The multi-party democracy endeavour in Nepal rapidly deteriorated into conflicts for control among and within the political parties. The prohibition and subsequent ineffectiveness of political parties not achieving global peace and security were seen. Examining countries that have effectively undergone economic change underscores the essential role played by governmental entities in managing such processes. The political growth of Nepal represents a distinct deviation from core political theory, morals, and values. Political parties have been detrimental to the functioning of democracy due to their failure to establish and sustain democratic advancements inside institutional frameworks effectively. Effective governance is needed to confront the dual challenges posed by the Maoist insurgency (often referred to as terrorism) and the deceleration of economic growth.

Does Maila Speak? A Journey of a Common Man in Mahananda Dhakal’s Burhan

This paper examines the reasoning behind the voice (lessness) of Maila Tharu and his son Somlal Tharu, the prominent characters in Mahananda Dhakal’s novel Burhan, representing the western Nepalese Tharu community, in the context of the discussion on subaltern awareness within Nepal’s caste-based elite structure. The paper observes the novel’s present presumptions regarding subaltern consciousness and resistance by looking at Maila, one of the leaders of the Nepali socio-political movement, and their seemingly unquestioned goal of mainstreaming. Furthermore, it highlights the Tharus’ social reality in the light of how the subaltern is misrepresented and altered during transitions, particularly in Nepal’s numerous political- cultural movements, both before and after the Maoist insurgency and the Tharu Liberation movement. The study, which is a qualitative analytical research work, tries to conclude that despite the political liberation movements that took place throughout Nepal’s political history, the voice for prosperity is still overshadowed by the contemporary governmental structure, where marginalized people like Tharus have turned into the victims of all kinds of wars and movements. In fact, Maila Tharu cannot speak nor is heard if today’s power politics continues. Characters like Maila Tharu and his son Somlal experience the biases of cultural interactions and political changes as well as so-called right-based activism, which, until this day, works against economic prosperity.

Socio-cultural Aspects of Federal Structure in Nepal

The decade long maoist insurgency and the joint effort of the existing seven political parties' alliance like Nepali Congress, CPN UML and others overthrew the monarchy transforming the country into republic state deciding to adopt federal system of governance. The sole motto of federal notion as said is the equitable justice, accommodation of diversities and wholesome development regarding the economic, socio-cultural, political and international prospects. Before unification of Nepal, It was divided into a numerous principalities and kingdoms, with its own system of governance following the social and cultural autonomy, the own mode of production. The political front formed then after slowly and consistently came under centralized form of administration, annihilation of the local systems slowly. The local systems, usages, local identity, local aspirations, social and cultural diversity were encroached and suppressed in systematic manner. The state unites physically but the rational cultural, social unification left behind by the contemporary ruler and governance that invites for the socio-cultural federalization.

Manpower Recruitment Agencies in Nepal

The daily exodus of an increasing number of Nepali to many foreign nations has a significant economic influence on the country. It is not a new phenomenon in Nepal for people to migrate outside to seek work. Still, it is a relatively new practice in Nepal to facilitate overseas migration through employment agencies. Nepal's liberal democratic atmosphere, openness, and the nationwide spread of the Maoist insurgency contributed to a dramatic rise in transnational movements in the country midway through the 2000s. Over this period, there was a notable increase in the number of Nepalis using brokering agencies and their agents to help them migrate out of Nepal, mostly to non-traditional locations in India. Moving further from mere focusing on impact of international migration on migrants and their family members, this article discusses the distinguishing features and nature of recruitment agencies that facilitate the worldwide migration of foreign workers from Nepal. This article is based on research that looked at companies that help workers migrate outside of Nepal through migrant recruiting. Since these groups are a part of global networks that assist individuals travelling across borders, their actions have made it simpler to turn Nepalis into commodities on the global market stage. To gain an understanding of the nuances of the topic and to derive meaning from the raw data, the study relied mainly on primary and ethnographic data that were subsequently processed thematically.

Civil war violence and competing legitimacy claims: Evidence from district level courts cases in Nepal

Internal armed conflict is the ultimate instantiation of two actors – the state and a non-state group – challenging the legitimacy of one another. The state primarily responds violently to those who challenge, either violently or non-violently, its legitimacy. To what extent does the violent suppression of rebel activity erode state legitimacy? How does the potential for the use of violence by non-state armed groups and the offer of parallel governance erode state legitimacy? This research develops an argument specific to contested territories where both sides cannot offer model governance but use violence for opposing reasons, namely the rebel group to delegitimize the state and the state to regain its monopoly on the legitimate use of force. Because the use of violence from either side creates a demand for judicial remedies, I conceptualize the degree of legitimacy in terms of the utilization of the state court system in the face of increased violence by the state or non-state armed groups. In line with theoretical expectations, empirical analyses of criminal and civil cases filed in Nepal's district courts during the Maoist insurgency suggest a statistically significant negative impact of the rebel use of violence and their offer of alternative governance on state legitimacy. Similarly, the state's use of violence had a negative and significantly detrimental effect on state legitimacy.

Distribution Nature of Foreign Exchange (FOREX) Rates in Nepal

The economy of Nepal is based on the inflow of remittances sent by the Nepalese who have gone abroad for foreign employment. The trend started after the start of the Maoist insurgency and has been going on due to a lack of employment opportunities within the nation. Other than remittance, tourism and a certain amount of foreign aid have been the sources of foreign exchange earnings for Nepal. These sources of FOREX have been able to maintain the balance of payments in Nepal. One unique feature of FOREX rates in Nepal is that the Nepalese rupee (NPR) is pegged with the Indian rupee (INR), the currency of the neighboring nation, India. The central bank of Nepal, Nepal Rastra Bank, publishes FOREX rates for 21 different countries on a daily basis, though exchange rates for 16 currencies have been publishing buying and selling rates for the past decade. Hence, the paper analyzed the distribution nature of 16 countries FOREX buying and selling rates and found that INR FOREX rates have no randomness as they are pegged. The most concerned currencies, like USD, SAR, QAR, and AED, were fitted with beta distribution capabilities to reflect the future trend of the exchange rate. At the same time, the GBP buying rate, JPY, and KRW buying and selling rates were best-fitted in general extreme value (GEV), reflecting the risky nature of currencies. The exchange rate distribution seems to be a concern to the exporter and importer, as the nature of the distribution could help to categorize the level of FOREX risk with a specific currency.

The Importance of Buddhism to Heal Trauma in Pahadi’s “The Tears of Terror”

This article has tried to analyze Kishor Pahadi’s “The Tears of Terror” by applying Buddhism and its principal assets which would help the victims relieve from the pain and suffering or trauma they have got during the ten-year long Maoist insurgency. People during the decade-long conflict were badly inflicted by the fatal consequences from which they could hardly get over. Different measures were taken to help them get over, however, following some meditative aspects of Buddhism, one can get relief from the mental shock which has been imprinted in mind for a long time. This article is not talking about leaving home and going to the monasteries, rather it highlights some meditative aspects of Buddhism which can relieve the victims who is/are narrated in this story.

Colonial Institutions and Civil War: Indirect Rule and Maoist Insurgency in India

Colonial Institutions and Civil War: Indirect Rule and Maoist Insurgency in India

Colonial Institutions and Civil War: Indirect Rule and Maoist Insurgency in India by Shivaji Mukherjee

The rise in intrastate conflict since the end of WWII has drawn much attention to the various incentives and opportunities that underpin violent rebellion, often resulting in protracted insurgencies. In his book Colonial Institutions and Civil War, Shivaji Mukherjee explores the breakout of insurgent movements in the era of decolonization since the 1950s. In particular, Mukherjee examines the role played by historical colonial institutions in shaping local socioeconomic and political structures that make the emergence and persistence of insurgencies more likely. Much of the literature focused on exploring the causes of terrorism, insurgencies, and civil war tends to place emphasis on the proximate reasons that trigger political violence by nonstate actors—for example, poverty, ethnic grievances, and exploitable natural resources like drug cultivation. Per Mukherjee, while these factors are important, they are inadequate in providing a comprehensive explanation of the contours of insurgencies, especially their occurrence in specific locations. In his work, Mukherjee takes into account a longer time horizon to move beyond studying proximate reasons of insurgencies and instead places the spotlight on colonial-era policies that established the structural conditions conducive to violent movements.