Manufacture Of Methamphetamine Research Articles

Modelling the amount of inputs needed for methamphetamine manufacture in Afghanistan.

The use and manufacture of methamphetamine has increased in Afghanistan in recent years. Recent research and reports have pointed to the ephedra plant, which grows wildly, as a key source of ephedrine used in the manufacture of methamphetamine. This paper aimed to estimate the relative efficiencies and scale of inputs required to manufacture methamphetamine in Afghanistan. Monte Carlo simulations model of the amount of ephedra or cold medications needed to render a pure kilogram of methamphetamine in Afghanistan, accounting for uncertainty in ranges of key parameters informed from the literature and elsewhere. Final estimates were extrapolated to recent seizure totals. For dried ephedra, the median estimate is 196.8kg (25th-75th percentiles 119.3-346.6kg) needed to produce 1kg of methamphetamine compared with 27.9kg (25th-75th percentiles 21.9-36.8kg) for cold medications. Nearly 2.7t of methamphetamine were seized in Afghanistan in 2021. Assuming a purity range of 50%-90%, some 266-478 t of dried ephedra or 38-68 t of cold medication would need to have been processed. Simulated estimates show that considerable amounts of either ephedra or cold medication are needed to produce 1kg of methamphetamine in Afghanistan. This raises questions about the plausibility of ephedra as the dominant source of Afghanistan's methamphetamine.

Analysis of synthetic route and case correlation of methamphetamine crystals seized by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) and Pearson correlation coefficient method.

Analysis of impurities in illicit drugs provides key information on the manufacture and distribution of methamphetamine (MA). An analysis of 22 specific target compounds in unlawful MA products was conducted using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). The peak area of the alkaloids was utilized as an important calculation data variable to determine the synthesis method. The results demonstrated that the application of target screening techniques for trace impurity components in samples can aid in determining the synthesis process routes for toxin production in 169 samples. These samples were initially categorized based on their synthesis modes, specifically synthesis routes N, E, and R. The correlation analysis of MA samples with known synthetic routes was carried out using principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) and the Pearson correlation coefficient method. Among the N and R synthesis routes, 15 and 7 groups with strong correlation were screened, respectively. Consistent with the observed scenario, the samples from the synthetic route E showed limited correlation with each other. The experiment provides a focused framework for the management of synthetic raw materials used for the production of drugs and the investigation of drug-related cases. This facilitates a holistic strategy to combat drug-related crimes, from manufacturing laboratory to end-user.

Chemical decontamination of methamphetamine and ephedrine using an activated peroxide-containing cleaning solution

Manufacture and recreational use of methamphetamine can result in widespread chemical contamination throughout a property. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)-based cleaning products have shown success against a number of chemical contaminants including agents of chemical warfare, and biological contaminants such as anthrax. They are considered to be environmentally friendly and economically viable and, as such, are used by many companies within the methamphetamine decontamination industry. The oxidative decontamination of methamphetamine and ephedrine hydrochloride was investigated in this current study, employing a commercially available H2O2-based decontamination product, Bio-Oxygen® Chem Decon. Methamphetamine and ephedrine were observed to degrade following pseudo-first order kinetics of (1.9 ± 0.4) × 10−2 min−1 and (2.2 ± 0.3) × 10−2 min−1, respectively. Major oxidation products identified through GC-MS analyses were phenylacetone oxime (from methamphetamine) and benzaldehyde (from ephedrine). LC-MS analysis revealed the presence of a number of N-oxygenated intermediates which allowed for the elucidation of an N-oxidation decomposition pathway reminiscent of flavin-containing monooxygenase enzymes. Using this information, further targeted research can be performed to understand the behaviour and persistence of these reaction products and accurate assessments can be achieved to estimate their impact on the exposure risks associated with chemical decontamination of amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS).

Chemical decontamination of methamphetamine and ephedrine using Fe-TAML catalysed hydrogen peroxide oxidation

Exposure to contamination from former clandestine methamphetamine laboratories has been linked to adverse health effects including respiratory distress, sensory irritation, and behavioural changes. Therefore, it is important to employ effective remediation strategies to protect public health.Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) cleaning products are effective for chemical decontamination, however their mechanism of oxidative decomposition of methamphetamine and the identity of breakdown products are still largely undetermined. This inhibits our ability to effectively estimate hazards involved with their use in methamphetamine remediation. This study investigated the formation of products from the oxidative decomposition of methamphetamine, and one common precursor, ephedrine, by an H2O2 solution, catalysed by Fe-TAML (a green chemistry catalyst containing iron coordinated by a tetraamido macrocyclic ligand). Oxidation products identified in these reactions included common chemical precursors benzaldehyde and phenylacetone (also known as phenyl-2-propanone, P2P) as well as by-products typically related to methamphetamine manufacturing processes such as phenylacetone N-methylimine, amphetamine, and N-formylamphetamine. The high efficiency of oxidation of methamphetamine (88 ± 2%) and ephedrine (83 ± 2%) within 5 min, and >96% removal after 60 min with a second intermediary dose of H2O2, gives precedent to the future use of catalysed H2O2 solutions for methamphetamine remediation.

A Review of Methods Used to Detect Methamphetamine from Indoor Air and Textiles in Confined Spaces

Methamphetamine manufacture, use, and the resulting contamination is a significant issue that affects public health, the environment, and the economy. Third-hand exposure to methamphetamine can result in adverse health risks for individuals and first responders. Such exposures can result from the inhalation of airborne residues or from contact with contaminated objects. This review was conducted to determine the current methods used for methamphetamine extraction from indoor air and porous fabric materials. Dynamic solid phase microextraction (SPME) and sorbent sampling tubes have been applied to extract airborne methamphetamine residues from contaminated properties. SPME and solvent extraction have been applied to sample clothing and textiles for methamphetamine detection. This review demonstrates that there is limited literature on the detection of methamphetamine from indoor air and clothing. Supplementary and consistent methods to detect methamphetamine from air and porous surfaces should be developed and published to allow better assessment of the environmental risk to public health caused by third-hand exposure to methamphetamine.

Electrochemical sensing of amphetamine-type stimulants (pre)-precursors to fight against the illicit production of synthetic drugs

The illicit drug precursor market for the manufacture of amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS), mainly amphetamine, methamphetamine and methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), has emerged quickly in the last years. The evidence of a more complex and sophisticated drug market underlines the pressing need for new on-site methods to quickly detect precursors of synthetic drugs, with electrochemical analysis as a promising technique. Herein, the electrochemical fingerprints of ten common ATS precursors-3-oxo-2-phenylbutanenitrile (APAAN), 3-oxo-2-phenylbutanamide (APAA), methyl 3-oxo-2-phenylbutanoate (MAPA), benzyl methyl ketone (BMK), 1-(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)propan-2-one (PMK), ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, safrole, sassafras oil and piperonal- are reported for the first time. The electrochemical screening disclosed the redox inactivity of BMK, which is an essential starting material for the production of ATS. Therefore, the local derivatization of BMK at an electrode surface by reductive amination is presented as a feasible solution to enrich its electrochemical fingerprint. To prove that, the resulting mixture was analyzed using a set of chromatographic techniques to understand the reaction mechanism and to identify possible electrochemical active products. Two reaction products (i.e. methamphetamine and 1-phenylpropan-2-ol) were found and characterized using mass spectrometry and electrochemical methods. Subsequently, the optimization of the reaction parameters was carefully addressed to set the portable electrochemical sensing strategy. Ultimately, the analysis concept was validated for the qualitative identification of ATS precursors in seizures from a forensic institute. Overall, the electrochemical approach demonstrates to be a useful and affordable analytical tool for the early identification of ATS precursors to prevent trafficking and drug manufacture in clandestine laboratories.

Trends of clandestine laboratories manufacturing methamphetamine in New Zealand between 2009-2021: Evolution, enforcement, legislative, and COVID-19 effects.

The most common method of domestic methamphetamine manufacture encountered in New Zealand is the hydrogen iodide (HI) reduction of pseudoephedrine/ephedrine. While the overall method used to manufacture methamphetamine has remained consistent, the processes and chemicals utilized have evolved. Understanding the reason for any changes to methamphetamine manufacturing trends can assist jurisdictions with predicting the potential effects of enforcement and legislative initiatives. This paper presents data and trends amassed from suspected clandestine laboratories, associated with the manufacture of methamphetamine, in New Zealand between 2009 and 2021, along with data on methamphetamine, pseudoephedrine, and ephedrine seizures at the border. The data have shown that clandestine manufacturers in New Zealand have evolved the methamphetamine manufacturing process over the years. These changes in trends can largely be attributed to various enforcement and legislative effects and the COVID-19 pandemic response. Effects that enforcement, legislation, and the COVID-19 pandemic response may have had on the precursors, chemicals and equipment encountered are discussed.

Forensic profiling of Methamphetamine concealed in chinese teabags seized from multiple drug operations in the Philippines: A case report

Establish the profile of Methamphetamine found inside Chinese teabags in the Philippines. Chinese teabags encountered by the PDEA Laboratory from March 2019 to June 2021 with labels “Guanyingwang”, “Chinese Pin Wei”, “Daguanying”, “Qing Shan” and “Alishan Jin Xuan Tea” were sampled and subjected to analysis. Different packaging varieties were noted for “Guanyinwang” and “Daguanyin” labels. The samples were profiled using GCMS and GCFID. The melting point was determined for each sample. Chiral analysis was done using GCFID. Impurity profiling was conducted using GCMS and GCFID. Adulterants were determined via Raman Spectrometer and GCMS. The chemical profile of the said samples were determined to evaluate possible trends and patterns, using recommended methods for methamphetamine profiling (UNDICP, 2000). The stimulant D-methamphetamine was the dominant chirality type among samples tested. However, L-methamphetamine were also detected. In terms of methamphetamine manufacturing starting material, almost all samples analyzed were produced via Ephedrine/pseudoephedrine route. Adulterants were determined in the samples seized from NCR, IVA and BARMM. These adulterants were alum, isopropylbenzylamine and sodium sulfate. No local clandestine laboratory detected yet for Chinese teabags, which supports the idea that it comes from overseas. Alarmingly, it seems that the majority of the source of methamphetamine in the Philippines is now shifting to the Golden Triangle Drug Syndicate that mainly operates on the borders of Myanmar, Laos and Thailand. The concealment trademark (Chinese teabags) of the Golden Triangle Drug Group, appears to be a diversionary tactic in order for other countries to think that its methamphetamine source comes from China. Chinese teabags labels noted in Malaysia and Thailand were “Qing Shan” and “Daguanying” (UNODC, 2019). The samples from seaport interdiction operation in Region V may imply possible local smuggling routes from Luzon to Mindanao or vice-versa. Importantly, the existing information provides vital intelligence lead among law enforcers and investigators dealing with anti-drug operations, as well as forensic chemists dealing with drug profiling and research works on methamphetamine concealed in Chinese teabags.

Restrictive deterrence: Avoiding arrest in rural methamphetamine markets

A component of restrictive deterrence, arrest avoidance is the notion that offenders employ specific strategies to evade detection. Although research focuses on the tactics drug dealers use to avoid law enforcement detection in crack, heroin, and marijuana markets in urban locations, no studies explore these techniques in rural settings or methamphetamine markets. Based on interviews with 52 men and women involved in methamphetamine markets, this article explores the arrest avoidance strategies used during ingredient acquisition, manufacturing, and distribution of methamphetamine. This study also expands the restrictive deterrence literature by asking each participant if they experienced a methamphetamine related arrest and how their arrest avoidance strategies related to their arrests. When participants were arrested, they revealed that they were sometimes not using any strategies or that some unique situation (i.e. getting set up by a friend) was the reason for their arrest rather than ineffective avoidance tactics.

Nitrosamine formation from the reaction of methamphetamine with gaseous nitrous acid.

Methamphetamine is the most commonly seized amphetamine-type stimulant (ATS) worldwide. Chemical residues associated with the use or manufacture of methamphetamine can persist in the air and surfaces in a property for over 5 years and potentially pose risks to the health and safety of the public. When a house is tested for contamination, the test focuses on the presence of surface methamphetamine residue; however, other hazardous chemicals may also be present, including methamphetamine precursors and reaction products. As little has been reported about the ageing of the methamphetamine inside dwellings, there is currently large uncertainty regarding its fate and/or degradation products in such environments. If the indoor reactivity of methamphetamine is similar to that of nicotine-derived third-hand smoke, the production of a carcinogenic nitrosamine is an expected result. Thus, this proof-of-concept study investigated the reaction of methamphetamine with the common gaseous indoor oxidant nitrous acid (HONO) and monitored the fate of the resulting reaction products in simulated laboratory experiments to further understand the potential health risks associated with contaminated properties. Surface methamphetamine residue was observed to decrease with an exponential decay with an upper limit of 2.38 ± 0.5 × 10-3 min-1 upon exposure to HONO gas (5.7 ppmv, 0.25 L min-1 ). N-nitrosomethamphetamine (NMA), a suspected human mutagen and carcinogen, was detected to have a steady-state formation over the sampling time frame, with a surface area concentration of 0.87 μg/100 cm2 , suggesting that the risks to public health for properties contaminated with methamphetamine may be currently underestimated.

Organ-Specific Accumulation and Toxicokinetics of Ephedrine in Adult Zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Ephedrine (EPH) is an alkaloid commonly used to relieve nasal congestion caused by colds, allergic rhinitis, rhinitis, and sinusitis, and to control bronchial asthma. It is also be used as a raw material in the manufacture of methamphetamine. Although the distribution of EPH in surface waters has been widely studied, its uptake, internal distribution, and toxicokinetic processing in exposed organisms have not been well investigated. In this study, we investigated the uptake, disposition, and toxicokinetics of EPH in zebrafish (Danio rerio) in a semi-static exposure system. EPH was consistently detected in zebrafish biological samples, with the highest concentrations of 84.97 ng·g-1 detected in the brain tissue of fish in the high treatment group. Over the 14-d exposure period, the relative abundance of mean concentrations of EPH in biological samples generally followed the order of brain > ovary > liver > intestine > muscle. The uptake rate constants (Ku), elimination rate constants (Ke), and half-lives of EPH in the biological tissues were in the ranges 0.23-570.31 L·(kg·d)-1, 1.22-6.11 d-1, and 0.12-0.57 d, respectively. The observed bioconcentration factor (BCFo) and kinetically-derived bioconcentration factor (BCFk) were similar, ranging 0.24-337.33 L·kg-1 and 0.13-316.43 L·kg-1, respectively. These results are helpful for understanding the behavior of psychoactive substances in aquatic organisms and have directive significance for studying their toxicity and ecological risks to aquatic organisms.

The social organization of methamphetamine manufacturing: Roles, identities and persistence

PurposeWe discuss small batch methamphetamine (i.e., shake meth) cooking as a form of systematic offending using a social organization framework. MethodSemi-structured interviews with 33 people who cooked meth and who were living in faith-based transitional facilities in Alabama. This is coupled with data from an 18-month long ethnography of people who used methamphetamine in rural Alabama that consisted of semi-structured interviews with 52 people and observations and conversations. ResultsInternal and external social organization are dependent on the daily concerns of those who use meth, the social context of their lives, and production imperatives. Small batch meth production is a professional crime; it takes some skill, a network, and organizing capacity. It is influenced by the pharmacological properties and symptoms of meth abuse including being cut off from conventional attachments. ConclusionsA defined social organization provides people with roles, expectations, and aspirations. Positions have routines and meanings that embed participants in criminal or drug cultures and contribute to their persistence in crime.

Patterns of methamphetamine production among an international sample of methamphetamine 'cooks'.

The illicit manufacture of methamphetamine in clandestine laboratories is associated with significant risks to the community and environment. Currently little is known about clandestine laboratories or the individual 'cooks' who operate them; current research directly engaging with cooks is limited to three qualitative studies with small samples (n < 24) of cooks based in the USA. This descriptive brief report starts to address this knowledge gap by exploring characteristics of an international sample of self-identified methamphetamine cooks. Using data from the 2017 and 2018 Global Drug Surveys, we identified 125 individuals from 24 countries who reported past manufacture of methamphetamine. We explored respondents' socio-demographic characteristics and patterns of methamphetamine production using descriptive statistics. The majority of methamphetamine cooks were male (82%) and Caucasian (70%) and, contrary to previous studies, 43% were employed and 51% had at least a high school certificate. Cooks most commonly sourced precursors from pharmacies (50%), followed by friends (24%). Almost half of the cooks (47%) produced methamphetamine exclusively for self-consumption. The heterogeneous nature of the sample and varying precursor sources reflect the limitations of existing regulations aimed at limiting methamphetamine production. These findings point to the need for innovative and multi-faceted efforts aimed at reducing and preventing the harms associated with methamphetamine manufacture.

Current practices underestimate environmental exposures to methamphetamine: inhalation exposures are important

Current practice for determining the exposure to methamphetamine in contaminated homes relies on the analysis of surface wipe sample to address direct contact exposures. The movement of methamphetamine into the air phase, and the potential for inhalation exposures to occur within residential homes contaminated from former clandestine manufacture or smoking of methamphetamine has been generally poorly characterised and understood. All available risk-based guidelines for determining safe levels of methamphetamine in residential properties do not include any consideration of the inhalation pathway as an exposure route. This study showed that methamphetamine can readily move from contaminated materials in a home into the air phase. This movement of methamphetamine into the air phase provides both an exposure pathway and a mechanism for the transfer of methamphetamine throughout a property. The inhalation exposure pathway has the potential to result in significant intake of methamphetamine, adding to dermal absorption and ingestion exposure routes. Guidelines that are established for the assessment of methamphetamine contaminated properties that ignore inhalation exposures can significantly underestimate exposure and result in guidelines that are not adequately protective of health. This study also demonstrates that sampling methamphetamine in air can be undertaken using commercially available sorption tubes and analytical methods.

Environmental Methamphetamine Exposures and Health Effects in 25 Case Studies.

The clandestine manufacture and use of methamphetamine can result in contamination of residential properties. It is understood that this contamination remains in homes for a significant period, however there are a lack of data available to understand the health effects of exposure to environmental methamphetamine contamination (third-hand exposure). Our study collected information from 63 individuals in 25 separate case studies where the subjects had unwittingly suffered third-hand exposure to methamphetamine from former manufacture, use, or both. Data included environmental contamination data, information on subjects’ health effects, and evidence of exposure using hair analysis. This study identified a range of health effects that occur from residing in these properties, including behavioural effects or issues, sleep issues, respiratory effects, skin and eye effects, and headaches. Methamphetamine was detected in hair samples from some individuals, including children. The exposures and concomitant reported health effects covered a wide range of environmental methamphetamine levels in the properties, including low levels close to the current Australian guideline of 0.5 µg methamphetamine/100 cm2. There were no discernible differences between health effects from living in properties contaminated from former manufacture or use. This study demonstrates that residing in these properties can represent a serious public health risk.

Structural and functional changes in an Australian high-level drug trafficking network after exposure to supply changes

BackgroundIllicit drug markets and associated supply changes (including changes in availability and purity) have been studied for many years but with limited attention to how drug trafficking networks adapt to such changes and the consequences thereof: the aim of this study. MethodsA longitudinal social network analysis was applied to a high-level drug trafficking network which supplied methamphetamine and other drugs over 15 years in Melbourne, Australia (1993-2007). Data were extracted from judges' sentencing comments, a biography, and mainstream media. Five time periods were devised, and supply changes (distinguishing between law-enforcement-caused and non-law-enforcement-caused) were coded in each period. Then, the associated structural and functional changes in the network were analysed within and between periods. ResultsThirty-two supply changes were identified, of which 59% were law-enforcement-caused and 41% not. Temporally associated structural and functional changes included a shift from mostly international trafficking to mostly domestic manufacture (and vice versa), recruiting corrupted public officials, decentralisation, as well as changes in network density, roles, and size. Despite 32 supply changes, the network continued to sell large quantities of drugs for at least 15 years. ConclusionThis research highlighted the complex adaptive nature of the illicit drug trade and its resilience to market change. Supply changes were associated with a variety of structural and functional changes in the network, some of which resulted in negative consequences such as corruption or the increased domestic manufacture of methamphetamine.

Aqueous chlorination of ephedrine: Kinetic, reaction mechanism and toxicity assessment

Ephedrine (EPH) is widely detected in the water environment, because it is the major ingredient in drugs treating influenza, asthma or hypotension, and is also a highly sought-after chemical precursor in the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine. In this study, transformation of EPH during the chlorination process was investigated for the first time, and the impact of water parameters including pH, different cations and anions on EPH transformation was evaluated as well. The degradation of EPH in the presence of NaClO fit the second order reaction kinetics, with a rate constant of 7.43 × 102 ((mol·L−1)−1·min−1). Increasing the dosage of NaClO increased the observed pseudo first order rate constant for EPH degradation (kobs). Degradation rate of EPH decreased with the increasing pH from 2.0 to 10.0, due to the formation of a chlorammonium intermediate that reacted with NaClO. Low concentration of Br− and I− did not exert significant influence on the degradation of EPH, while at high concentrations a promotive effect was observed. Other ions including Fe3+, Cu2+, NO3−, SO42−, Mg2+ and Ca2+ exerted negative effects even at relatively low concentrations. Based on the degradation products/intermediates identified by UPLC-MS/MS, the EPH degradation pathways were proposed. The reaction mechanism involved in the EPH degradation included dehydration, hydroxylation, deamination and demethylation. Toxicity assays by V. qinghaiensis sp. nov proved that the EPH transformation products were much more toxic than the parent compound. Results indicated that chlorination is an effective approach for the elimination of EPH in the aquatic environment, however, attention should be paid to its toxicity involvement during the chlorination process.

Case studies on illegal production of ephedrine/pseudoephedrine within Fujian China

Ephedrine/pseudoephedrine (EPH) is the most common precursor for the manufacture of methamphetamine and is controlled within China via criminal law and government regulations. Therefore, it is of great significance to systematically study the cases of illicit production of EPH in order to aid timely investigation into the production of precursor drugs. According to the literature, there are no comprehensive case studies on the illicit production of EPH. To address this, 50 cases involving the illicit production of EPH from Fujian Province in China were comprehensively explored and the quantitative data of the 762 collected samples were directly compared. In terms of the timeframe these cases occurred in, the results show that the number of such cases in Fujian Province increased significantly from 2012 to 2013 (10 cases -15 cases), but the number of cases decreased rapidly in 2016 (4 cases). Across the region of interest, the illegal production of EPH was mainly observed in Longyan, accounting for 32 cases (64.0 % of the total cases). Forty-two cases (84.0 % of the total cases) were located in remote mountains, abandoned pig farms, chicken farms and factories. In terms of the synthetic methodology used, initially (up until 2013) only the extraction of EPH from the ephedra plant and from commercially available tablets was observed. The manufacture of EPH via a direct chemical synthesis was only observed in this region after 2013 at which point a significant drop in the extraction methodologies was identified. The quality of the samples and the appearance of semi-finished products was shown to vary significantly across the cases with sample color ranging from light yellow, brown, tan for both seized solids and liquids. This data set gives some insights into the local issues specifically around EPH production in Chinese provinces and goes some way to help inform policing strategies.

Determinants of the retail price of illegal drugs in New Zealand

IntroductionNew Zealand has a number of unusual geographical features that may influence the price of illegal drugs including international isolation, numerous rural communities, and two separate islands (North and South Islands). Aims(1) Collect data on the prices of different drug types from all regions of New Zealand; (2) Identify independent predictors of the reported prices. MethodAn online drug survey was promoted via a targeted Facebook™ campaign. A total of 6331 respondents completed the survey. Normal regression models were constructed to identify predictors of the reported price of an ounce of cannabis, gram of methamphetamine, pill of ecstasy and tab of LSD using demographics, drug use frequency, drug market indicators, region, community size, type of seller, and location of purchase as predictor variables. ResultsHigher availability was a predicator of lower prices for cannabis (-3% per higher availability category), methamphetamine (-4%) and ecstasy (-5%). Those living in the North Island (-26%) and buying from gangs (-5%) paid lower prices for methamphetamine. Those living in rural communities reported higher prices for methamphetamine (+5%) but lower prices for cannabis (-3%). Daily cannabis users (+4%) and those on social welfare (+2%) paid higher prices for cannabis. ConclusionLower prices for methamphetamine in the North Island may reflect the concentration of methamphetamine manufacture there. The fact that gangs offer lower prices for methamphetamine suggests they do not have monopoly control of this market. Gangs may be able to offer lower prices for methamphetamine due to scale of production/trafficking and lower risk of victimisation. Higher prices for methamphetamine in rural areas may reflect less competitive markets. Lower prices for cannabis in rural communities may be due to proximity to growing locations. Daily cannabis users and those on social welfare may be less able to delay their cannabis purchases to low price harvest months.

Investigating the New Zealand policy response to methamphetamine-contaminated houses.

The contamination of houses from clandestine methamphetamine manufacture emerged as an issue in New Zealand in the early 2000s. This perspective reviews and discusses the series of policies developed to address methamphetamine contamination in New Zealand houses over a 15-year period, ending with the reversal of the established policy approach in 2018. The policies addressing methamphetamine contamination of New Zealand properties were influenced by a range of sources including overseas scientific guidelines, local scientific reviews, public housing agency policies, and the local methamphetamine testing industry. A post-remediation methamphetamine level of 0.5 μg/100 cm2 was initially implemented in 2010, leading to the termination of public housing tenancies, suspensions from the public housing list, and financial charges for decontamination on public housing tenants. Subsequent reviews of the policy led to some increase in the thresholds (up to 1.5-3.8 μg/100 cm2 ) and the adoption of less punitive sanction processes. A scientific review in 2018 recommended a substantial threshold increase to 15 μg/100 cm2 (a 30-fold increase on the 2010 standard), resulting in HNZ initiating a plan to compensate previously sanctioned tenants. Overreliance on the "precautionary principle"; strict interpretation of scientific guidelines; and the public housing agency's "zero tolerance approach" to drug use, contributed to an overly punitive policy approach to methamphetamine contamination in New Zealand that negatively impacted vulnerable public housing tenants, landlords, and property owners. Investigation into the extent that all possible influences had on the development of the policies, as well as the consequences of their implementation, should be undertaken.