Manual Defoliation Research Articles

Does long-term drought or repeated defoliation affect seasonal leaf N cycling in young beech trees?

Forest trees adopt effective strategies to optimize nitrogen (N) use through internal N recycling. In the context of more recurrent environmental stresses due to climate change, the question remains of whether increased frequency of drought or defoliation threatens this internal N recycling strategy. We submitted 8-year-old beech trees to 2 years of either severe drought (Dro) or manual defoliation (Def) to create a state of N starvation. At the end of the second year before leaf senescence, we labeled the foliage of the Dro and Def trees, as well as that of control (Co) trees, with 15N-urea. Leaf N resorption, winter tree N storage (total N, 15N, amino acids, soluble proteins) and N remobilization in spring were evaluated for the three treatments. Defoliation and drought did not significantly impact foliar N resorption or N concentrations in organs in winter. Total N amounts in Def tree remained close to those in Co tree, but winter N was stored more in the branches than in the trunk and roots. Total N amount in Dro trees was drastically reduced (-55%), especially at the trunk level, but soluble protein concentrations increased in the trunk and fine roots compared with Co trees. During spring, 15N was mobilized from the trunk, branches and twigs of both Co and Def trees to support leaf growth. It was only provided through twig 15N remobilization in the Dro trees, thus resulting in extremely reduced Dro leaf N amounts. Our results suggest that stress-induced changes occur in N metabolism but with varying severity depending on the constraints: within-tree 15N transport and storage strategy changed in response to defoliation, whereas a soil water deficit induced a drastic reduction of the N amounts in all the tree organs. Consequently, N dysfunction could be involved in drought-induced beech tree mortality under the future climate.

Savanna tree regrowth after defoliation explained by bud activation rather than reserve mobilization

Livestock rearing is increasing in savannas, so the ability of trees to regrow after consumption represents one of the critical aspects of savanna structure and functioning. Here, we identified specific traits—which may explain the mechanisms behind defoliation tolerance—in saplings of two encroacher tree species (Vachellia caven and Vachellia aroma). We carried out common garden and field experiments where manual defoliation treatments simulated the cattle grazing regime employed in the study region. At the end of the experiments, we recorded growth variables and, in the common garden experiment, root reserves concentration. In the common garden, defoliation decreased height and basal diameter growth but did not affect the aerial relative growth rate. Also, defoliation increased the number of branches per plant and decreased root relative growth rate. Starch concentration was higher or similar in defoliated plants than controls, depending on the species. In the field, defoliation decreased both species’ height and basal diameter growth. We found that tree saplings tolerated defoliation, and the mechanisms behind tolerance would be linked mainly to the axillary bud activation and not to storage reserve mobilization. Over time, these plant architectural changes might complicate cattle movement and management in these systems. From a long-term perspective, livestock rearing might retard juvenile recruitment into reproductive-size classes (e.g., adults) by reducing overall tree growth rates.

Vine Canopy Reconstruction and Assessment with Terrestrial Lidar and Aerial Imaging

For successful dosing of plant protection products, the characteristics of the vine canopies should be known, based on which the spray amount should be dosed. In the field experiment, we compared two optical experimental methods, terrestrial lidar and aerial photogrammetry, with manual defoliation of some selected vines. Like those of other authors, our results show that both terrestrial lidar and aerial photogrammetry were able to represent the canopy well with correlation coefficients around 0.9 between the measured variables and the number of leaves. We found that in the case of aerial photogrammetry, significantly more points were found in the point cloud, but this depended on the choice of the ground sampling distance. Our results show that in the case of aerial UAS photogrammetry, subdividing the vine canopy segments to 5 × 5 cm gives the best representation of the volume of vine canopies.

Influence of Different Defoliation Timings on Quality and Phenolic Composition of the Wines Produced from the Serbian Autochthonous Variety Prokupac (Vitis vinifera L.)

The variety Prokupac is the dominant variety in the vineyards of Southern Serbia, which produces quality wines of characteristic and unique tastes. In the agroecological conditions of the Prokuplje vine district, the influence of manual defoliation on the phenolic profile of the wine produced from the variety Prokupac was examined. Four experimental treatments with different timings of manual defoliation were applied: early defoliation—treatment I, early defoliation—treatment II, late defoliation—treatment III and the control. The phenolic profile of the wine was determined for the three treatments of defoliation and the control treatment. Additionally, a multivariate analysis was applied on the obtained results, together with already published data (grape seeds and skins phenolic profiles). Identification and quantification of the phenolic compounds was performed using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) with an ultraviolet multi-diode detector (DAD) and mass detector with three analyzers—triple quadrupole (QQQ). Based on the obtained results, it was determined that there are significant differences between the experimental treatments in the content of individual polyphenols, total polyphenols and the antioxidant capacity. Twenty (20) phenolic compounds were identified in the wine samples of the experimental treatments. Defoliation significantly affected the variations of the contents of phenolic acids and flavonoids. In treatment III, the highest content of gallic acid was obtained, while the treatments with early defoliation did not differ in relation to the control sample. Early defoliation in treatments I and II had an effect on the phenolic composition of the wine by favoring the accumulation of flavonol, while the content of hydroxycinnamic acid and total anthocyanins (TAC) was higher in treatment III. The TAC increases with later defoliation. The wines obtained by the defoliation treatments did not show higher antioxidant activity compared to the control sample. A principal component analysis resulted in clustering of the samples based on the phenolic components characteristic for each group of samples.

Significance to the Horticulture Industry

Significance to the Horticulture Industry

Identification and Characterization of Sphaerulina vaccinii sp. nov. as the Cause of Leaf Spot and Stem Canker in Lowbush Blueberry and Its Epidemiology.

Septoria leaf spot and stem canker is an important disease of lowbush blueberry, but the causal pathogen has not been accurately identified. Based on sequence analysis of the internal transcribed spacer, translation elongation factor 1 alpha, RNA polymerase II second largest subunit, 28S nuclear ribosomal DNA gene, and β-tubulin genes, the pathogen aligns closely with the genus Sphaerulina. The phylogenetic analyses based on these loci demonstrate that while the pathogen is closely related to the species Sphaerulina amelanchier, it is sufficiently distinct to warrant a new species designation. No ascomata of the teleomorph were found; however, ascospores recovered from leaves fit, morphologically, with the genus Mycosphaerella. The morphological data also support a new species designation. Based on the host that this pathogen infects, we propose the name as Sphaerulina vaccinii and the disease as Sphaerulina leaf spot and stem canker. Under field conditions, it appears that initial inoculum originates from pycnidia on overwintered leaves and stem lesions (cankers) on fruiting stems. More than 90% of the initial inoculum was released during the flowering period from late May through June. Leaf spots began to appear in early June and disease severity increased in a linear manner over time. Secondary inoculum production from diseased foliage was minimal and not considered important epidemiologically. Defoliation resulting from disease began in early July and increased in a nonlinear manner thereafter. Manual defoliation of blueberry stems at various times prior to harvest showed the substantial extent to which premature defoliation by this disease can affect yield. Stem lesions were also shown to have an impact on yield, even though stems were not killed.

Qualidade fenólica em cultivares de uva submetida a poda verde e regulador hormonal

A cor e estabilidade das antocianinas em frutas são amplamente influenciadas pela temperatura, luz e pH. Neste sentido, o presente trabalho objetivou avaliar o manejo da desfolha e da aplicação do ácido abscísico (S-ABA) na qualidade fenólica das cultivares Primitivo e Malbec (Vitis vinifera L.). O experimento foi conduzido em um vinhedo comercial em Santa Catarina, Brasil, com duas cultivares de videira Primitivo e Malbec (V. vinífera L.), respectivamente, por dois ciclos consecutivos: 2015/2016 e 2016/2017. O delineamento experimental foi em blocos casualizados, consistindo em seis tratamentos: 1) testemunha (sem tratamento); 2) desfolha manual no início da maturação (DIM); 3) desfolha manual quinze dias após a primeira desfolha (D15); 4) S-ABA 200 mg L-1 (ABA200); 5) S-ABA 400 mg L-1 (ABA400); 6) S-ABA 600 mg L-1 (ABA600), quatro repetições e três plantas por parcela. Com os dados obtidos, realizou-se o teste de normalidade por Kolmogorov-Smirnov ao nível de 5% de significância, empregando a análise de variância (ANOVA) e, posteriormente, a Análise de Componentes Principais (ACP) com o objetivo de analisar a relação entre os parâmetros analisados, utilizando o software R. Após a discussão dos resultados, conclui-se que a aplicação exógena de S-ABA fornece níveis mais altos de flavonoides totais, luminosidade e cromaticidade em videiras cvs. Malbec e Primitivo e que a aplicação de S-ABA promoveu desfolha com 600 mg L-1, podendo ser uma alternativa para reduzir custos de produção. A desfolha forneceu um aumento na intensidade de cor e no ângulo Hue em bagas cv. Malbec e Primitivo, em que tal fator pode estar relacionado à maior incidência de radiação nos cachos, causada pela remoção das folhas.

Melhoria da qualidade da uva ‘Primitivo’ por desfolha manual e aplicação de ácido abscísico

As condições climáticas têm uma forte influência no cultivo da videira. A alta precipitação e as baixas temperaturas, por exemplo, podem fazer com que as uvas não atinjam índices de maturação adequados. Com o objetivo de verificar o efeito da desfolha e da aplicação de ácido abscísico (S-ABA) na melhoria da qualidade da uva, foi realizado um experimento em um vinhedo comercial da uva ‘Primitivo’, no Sul do Brasil, durante duas safras. Os tratamentos foram os seguintes: 1) controle; 2) desfolha manual no início da maturação ('veraison'); 3) 15 dias após a primeira desfolha manual; 4) ácido abscísico 200 mg L-1; 5) ácido abscísico 400 mg L-1; 6) ácido abscísico 600 mg L-1. Foram avaliadas as variáveis ​​sólidos solúveis, acidez titulável, polifenóis totais e antocianinas, intensidade de cor nas bagas, radiação fotossinteticamente ativa, índice de clorofila, porcentagem de desfolha e clorose. A desfolha manual realizada 15 dias após a primeira desfolha aumentou os sólidos solúveis e reduziu a acidez titulável, enquanto a aplicação de 400 mg L-1 de S-ABA aumentou a acidez titulável do mosto de uva. Houve uma maior radiação fotossinteticamente ativa próximo ao cacho para tratamentos de desfolha e S-ABA. A aplicação de S-ABA proporcionou clorose nas folhas, seguida de baixo teor de clorofila, causando a senescência. Portanto, a desfolha 15 dias após a primeira desfolha manual influenciou os sólidos solúveis e a acidez titulável, e a aplicação de ácido abscísico aumentou os níveis de polifenóis totais, antocianinas e a intensidade da cor nas cascas das bagas ‘Primitivo’.

Hiding in plain sight: experimental evidence for birds as selective agents for host mimicry in mistletoes

Many Australian mistletoe species are cryptic, closely resembling their host foliage and overall appearance. Seed-dispersing birds have been proposed as a selective agent for host resemblance, with cryptic mistletoes only located by thoroughly searching through canopies regardless of infection status, boosting mistletoe populations by increasing the frequency of seeds dispersed to uninfected hosts; however, this idea is as yet untested. We measured bird visitation to fruiting mistletoes (n = 20) over two consecutive days, with manual defoliation of the mistletoe occurring before observation began on the second day to determine the effect of the visual appearance of the mistletoe on potential seed-dispersing birds, expecting defoliation to reduce the number of visits. Visits to the mistletoes were compared between days of observation and dietary guild (mistletoe specialist/nonspecialist). Intact mistletoes were visited more than the defoliated mistletoes, and the dietary guilds differed in their visitation patterns. This work demonstrates that the visual acuity of seed-dispersers can distinguish subtle differences in mistletoe phenotypes within infected hosts, consistent with the hypothesis that those mistletoes that more closely resemble their hosts are more difficult to perceive from afar and therefore more likely to have their seeds dispersed to uninfected hosts.

Interactions among defoliation level, species, and soil richness determine foliage production during and after simulated spruce budworm attack

Defoliation level and site type are thought to influence tree response during spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana (Clemens)) outbreaks. We determined the effects of four manual defoliation treatments (0%, 50%, 100%, and 100% + bud removal of current foliage) for 3 years on foliage production of balsam fir (Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.), black spruce (Picea mariana (Mill.) Britton, Sterns & Poggenb.), and white spruce (Picea glauca (Moench) Voss) trees on four site-quality classes. After 3 years of defoliation and 2 years of recovery, foliage biomass was reduced by 34%–98%. During defoliation, the number of shoots generally increased and shoot length of spruce generally decreased, especially on rich sites. During recovery, the number of shoots increased substantially, shoot length decreased, and bud destruction reduced the number of shoots by about 50% compared with that of trees that received the 100% defoliation treatment. Defoliation did not substantially affect needle length. Trees on rich sites had two- to fourfold greater foliage production than trees on poor sites. Effects of site and defoliation differed among species, but site quality, especially nutrition, played an important role in production of shoots and needles and the tree’s ability to withstand defoliation. Black spruce had more limited ability to recover foliage biomass, only producing more shoots, whereas balsam fir and white spruce had stronger ability to recover needle and shoot length, respectively.

Manual Defoliation Treatments Affected Yield and Cluster Quality of Grapevines Cv. Crimson Seedless

Manual Defoliation Treatments Affected Yield and Cluster Quality of Grapevines Cv. Crimson Seedless

Efficacy of In-field Thermotherapy in Comparison and Combination of Defoliation for Mitigating Huanglongbing in Sweet Orange

Huanglongbing (HLB), a bacterial disease, is one of the most destructive citrus diseases. For many decades, it has been known that using heat/high temperatures (thermotherapy) is effective in suppressing plant diseases, particularly the suppression of Candidatus Liberibacter (CLas, casual agent for HLB) when the treated plants are grown in pots (allowing treatment of roots) under controlled conditions. However, in-field thermotherapy has yielded inconsistent results: the tree shows vigorous and symptomless growth for a brief period and then relapses with HLB symptoms. To understand why, this 2-year study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of in-field thermotherapy and its comparison with defoliation. A significant reduction in visible tree health, foliage, and yield was observed over time in all the treatments. The quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) results showed that in-field thermotherapy and other treatments were not effective in reducing CLas titer. Interestingly, the performance of thermotherapy and partial defoliated trees were comparable throughout the course of the experiment, indicating that the short-term effects and vigorous growth after thermotherapy are likely an artifact of defoliation and should not be confused with or considered recovery from disease. In an in-depth molecular and biochemical analysis, we found a few subtle transient (up to 15 days) differences occurring in the in-field thermotherapy trees. Genes associated with stress and plant defense response were observed to be altered by in-field thermotherapy. Overall, our results indicate that in-field thermotherapy is not an effective and reliable strategy for mitigating HLB in commercial citrus production and that its efficacy within in-field conditions is similar to manual defoliation. It is critical that any strategy aimed at mitigating HLB should target the whole plant, including the roots, as the CLas colonizes in shoots and the root system; therefore, it can possibly translocate within the entire plant with the bulk phloem flow.

The Effect of Early and Late Defoliation on Phenolic Composition and Antioxidant Properties of Prokupac Variety Grape Berries (Vitis vinifera L.)

The influence of leaf area and various variants of manual defoliation on the phenolic profile of the Prokupac variety grape berry were investigated in the agroecological conditions of southern Serbia. The following four trial variants of manual defoliation were assessed: Early defoliation—variant I (flowering stage, 50% open flowers); early defoliation—variant II (grape size 3–5 mm); late defoliation—variant III (onset of grape ripening, veraison); and control (no defoliation). The first six leaves of each primary shoot were removed from all defoliated vines. The greatest assimilation area of primary and lateral shoots during the study was observed in the control, i.e., the trial variant with no defoliation. Defoliation significantly decreased the grape yield of the all three defoliated variants in regard to the control. The phenolic profile of the three variants and control was established by analyzing the grape seeds and skin. Based on the collected results for the Prokupac variety, significant differences between the trial variants were established regarding the content of phenols and total polyphenols, as well as radical scavenging activity. Defoliation variants showed a significant effect on the total phenols content of grape skin. In all defoliation variants, as well as in the control, high amounts of ellagic acid were measured. Resveratrol was identified only in grape skin samples of the control variant. The removal of leaves increased the concentration of phenolic compounds in variants where early defoliation was applied. The highest total anthocyanins content was found in 2015 in variant I, where leaves were removed during the full flowering stage.

Defoliation, application of S-ABA and vegetal extracts on the quality of grape and wine Malbec cultivar

Abstract High rainfall and low temperatures can cause grapes not to reach adequate maturation indexes. The aim of this work was to evaluate the effect of leaf removal, hormonal regulator and vegetable extracts on the quality of grape and wine. An experiment was conducted in a vineyard of Malbec cv.in southern Brazil by two consecutive seasons. Treatments were: 1) control, 2) manual defoliation in early maturation; 3) defoliation 15 days after the first defoliation; 4) S-ABA200 mg L-1; 5) S-ABA400 mg L-1; 6) S-ABA600 mg L-1. 7) vegetal Stachytarpheta cayenensis extract (100 g L-1) and 8) Cymbopogon citratus 100 g L-1. Diameter and length of canes, soluble solids, titratable acidity, anthocyanins and polyphenols in berry and wine, photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), chlorophyll index, defoliation percentage and leaf chlorosis and color index of berry skin were evaluated. Defoliation and S-ABA increased PAR. S-ABA provided leaf chlorosis and lowered the chlorophyll content, causing senescence. Defoliation and S-ABA increased the levels of total polyphenols, anthocyanins both in berry skin and wine of grapes Malbec cv. Vegetal extracts applied did not influence physical and chemical analyses, neither in anthocyanins and total polyphenols.

Defoliation of interior Douglas-fir elicits carbon transfer and stress signalling to ponderosa pine neighbors through ectomycorrhizal networks.

Extensive regions of interior Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca, IDF) forests in North America are being damaged by drought and western spruce budworm (Choristoneura occidentalis). This damage is resulting from warmer and drier summers associated with climate change. To test whether defoliated IDF can directly transfer resources to ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosae) regenerating nearby, thus aiding in forest recovery, we examined photosynthetic carbon transfer and defense enzyme response. We grew pairs of ectomycorrhizal IDF ‘donor’ and ponderosa pine ‘receiver’ seedlings in pots and isolated transfer pathways by comparing 35 μm, 0.5 μm and no mesh treatments; we then stressed IDF donors either through manual defoliation or infestation by the budworm. We found that manual defoliation of IDF donors led to transfer of photosynthetic carbon to neighboring receivers through mycorrhizal networks, but not through soil or root pathways. Both manual and insect defoliation of donors led to increased activity of peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase and superoxide dismutase in the ponderosa pine receivers, via a mechanism primarily dependent on the mycorrhizal network. These findings indicate that IDF can transfer resources and stress signals to interspecific neighbors, suggesting ectomycorrhizal networks can serve as agents of interspecific communication facilitating recovery and succession of forests after disturbance.

Effects of late defoliations on chemical and sensory characteristics of cv. uva longanesi wines

In this study we investigated the effects of late leaf removal on the berry and wine composition and on wine sensory characteristics of Uva Longanesi, a late maturing red Italian grape variety, which wines are characterized by high levels of alcohol and excessive astringency, the latter apparently intensified by late defoliation practices. During 2008 season, spur-pruned trained vines were submitted to manual defoliation (4 basal leaves) at the onset (DEF I, 210 DOY) or at the end (DEF II, 231 DOY) of veraison and compared with non-defoliated plants (CON). On every DEF II vine, since defoliation until harvest, a cluster was shaded (DEF II + shading). A decrease of the berry soluble solids and skin anthocyanins was found in DEF I vines. Defoliation modified composition and sensory characteristics of wine with DEF II having higher alcohol strength and astringency compared to DEF I, whereas CON wines displayed intermediate values. The practice and timing of partial late defoliation greatly affected the chemical and sensory attributes of wine.

Características morfoagronômicas do milho submetido a diferentes níveis de desfolha manual

O presente trabalho foi realizado com o objetivo de avaliar os danos causados pela desfolha na cultura do milho. O experimento foi desenvolvido no ano agrícola 2005/2006, na Fazenda Roma, localizada no município de Ituverava, Estado de São Paulo. Para a sua concretização utilizou-se o híbrido triplo CODETEC 304®. O experimento foi composto de parcelas subdivididas, que foram distribuídas em três blocos de forma casualizada, apresentando como tratamento principal a desfolha manual (30, 40, 60 e 80% de desfolha) e como secundário as fases fenológicas da cultura D1 (sete folhas completamente desenvolvidas), D2 (quando as plantas apresentam-se na fase de pendoamento) e D3 (quando as plantas apresentam-se na fase de enchimento de grãos-grãos leitosos) com três repetições para cada tratamento e uma parcela controle (0% de desfolha) para cada bloco. Foram avaliados a produção de grãos das parcelas (g/m²), o tamanho médio das espigas despalhadas (cm) e o peso médio de 1.000 grãos (g). Para o presente estudo, concluiu-se que as relações fonte-dreno foram afetadas negativamente em que a desfolha de 80% foi a que mais afetou todas variáveis, portanto é um nível de desfolha responsável pelas maiores perdas, não havendo meios de compensação para a cultura do milho.

Mycorrhizal colonization does not affect tolerance to defoliation of an annual herb in different light availability and soil fertility treatments but increases flower size in light-rich environments

Heterogeneous distribution of resources in most plant populations results in a mosaic of plant physiological responses tending to maximize plant fitness. This includes plant responses to trophic interactions such as herbivory and mycorrhizal symbiosis which are concurrent in most plants. We explored fitness costs of 50% manual defoliation and mycorrhizal inoculation in Datura stramonium at different light availability and soil fertility environments in a greenhouse experiment. Overall, we showed that non-inoculated and mycorrhiza-inoculated plants did not suffer from 50% manual defoliation in all the tested combinations of light availability and soil fertility treatments, while soil nutrients and light availability predominately affected plant responses to the mycorrhizal inoculation. Fifty percent defoliation had a direct negative effect on reproductive traits whereas mycorrhiza-inoculated plants produced larger flowers than non-inoculated plants when light was not a limiting factor. Although D. stramonium is a facultative selfing species, other investigations had shown clear advantages of cross-pollination in this species; therefore, the effects of mycorrhizal inoculation on flower size observed in this study open new lines of inquiry for our understanding of plant responses to trophic interactions. Also in this study, we detected shifts in the limiting resources affecting plant responses to trophic interactions.

Defoliation depletes the carbohydrate reserves of resprouting Acacia saplings in an African savanna

Over the past century there has been a global trend towards tree expansion and densification in rangelands and savannas. This phenomenon is commonly referred to as bush encroachment. In South Africa Acacia karroo is one of the key species responsible for bush encroachment. It has been suggested that the combination of fire and browsing might limit bush encroachment by A. karroo more effectively than either browsing or fire alone. We hypothesized that these repeated disturbances progressively deplete root carbohydrates and compromise resprouting ability. This was tested by burning and then manually defoliating A. karroo once a month for 1 year. Manual defoliation did not inhibit the rapid shoot elongation after topkill of A. karroo saplings. During this initial phase, the growth of the new shoots of A. karroo was dependent more on mobilised root reserves than on photoassimilates from the new shoots. Frequent manual defoliation of resprouting A. karroo saplings prevented the replenishment of starch reserves. We suggest a mechanism for how the interaction of browsing and fire can suppress and perhaps reverse bush encroachment in African savannas. Saplings that have reduced starch reserves at the end of dry season due to browsing will struggle to resprout if they are burnt. Even if they do not die, they will be less able to escape fire damage in the next fire than if they had been able to resprout unimpeded.

Prediction of balsam fir sawfly defoliation using a Bayesian network model

Predictions of defoliation are an important component of planning aerial insect control programs, especially for defoliators such as balsam fir sawfly ( Neodiprion abietis (Harris)) that cause severe impacts on forest growth and yield. Currently, defoliation prediction is done manually based on field observations and experience, but it is a good candidate for a Bayesian network (BN), a flexible tool for combining available expert knowledge and empirical data. We created a BN model and linked it to a geographic information system to map predicted defoliation for balsam fir sawfly in western Newfoundland over an area of 5.7 million ha from 2001 to 2008. Based on expert knowledge, probabilistic influence of egg counts, previous defoliation, and stand characteristics (species composition, stand age, and management intervention) on subsequent-year defoliation was quantified. For validation purposes, maps created using the BN model were compared with manual defoliation predictions and with measured aerial defoliation survey maps. BN model defoliation prediction maps were found to be in moderate agreement (mean Kappa value of 0.59) with conventional manual prediction maps. Overall, the BN model showed similar accuracy to manual predictions, but with benefits of automating the process and of providing more spatial detail in predictions.