Mandarin Proficiency Research Articles

Reverse Transfer in Chinese Adolescents: Implications for Language and Cultural Identity Preservation

This literature review examines the phenomenon of reverse transfer (RT) among Chinese adolescents, focusing on its implications for the preservation of their mother tongue and cultural identity. Reverse transfer, a subtype of cross-linguistic influence (CLI), occurs when a later-acquired language affects an earlier one, challenging the traditional view of language learning as unidirectional. The study of RT is particularly pertinent for Chinese adolescents, who are often exposed to multiple languages due to globalization and educational policies, potentially impacting their linguistic and cultural heritage. This article employs the method of a formal literature review. The review synthesizes recent research on RT among Chinese adolescents, with a focus on how additional languages, particularly English, influence their Mandarin proficiency. Findings suggest English has had a significant impact on the mother tongue of Chinese adolescents. Moreover, RT’s impact extends to cultural identity, with some adolescents navigating multicultural spaces effectively, while others experience cultural dissonance, suggesting RT’s role in shaping cultural self-perception and connections to Chinese heritage. The paper underscores the complexity of RT’s effects on language and cultural identity, highlighting the need for educational practices that support multilingual development without compromising the mother tongue. It concludes with a call for longitudinal studies to explore the long-term effects of RT on language and cultural identity among Chinese adolescents, aiming to inform language education and cultural preservation policies.

Chinese Folk Songs Can Facilitate Chinese Language Learning - A Pilot Study.

While previous research has demonstrated the beneficial role of pop music in foreign language learning, there is a lack of studies exploring the potential impact of Chinese folk songs on Mandarin language acquisition. This study aimed to investigate whether a curriculum based on Chinese folk songs enhances the outcomes of Mandarin Chinese learning in foreign speakers. International students in a university in Beijing who were attending regular Mandarin courses were allocated into two groups: the group receiving an additional Chinese folk song-based curriculum (intervention) and the group not (control). Mandarin proficiency after one and two semesters between the two groups was assessed using the Chinese Proficiency Test (i.e., Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi, HSK) by the Generalized Estimating Equations (GEE) analyses. 16 international students were analysed (intervention: 8; control: 8). After adjusting for time, the intervention group showed a significantly higher HSK score in listening section (adjusted β = 7.86, p = 0.015) than that of the control group. In conclusions, Chinese folk song-based curriculum has the potential to enhance Mandarin listening among foreign speakers.

Comprehensive Analysis of YCT Vocabulary Size and Gamification Strategies for Elementary Students

In an era of globalization and increasing cultural exchange between nations, a large number of foreign language learners have turned proficiency in Mandarin into a vital skill that provides individuals with opportunities to enhance communication, cultural understanding and international cooperation. Simultaneously, China's growing economic influence and its pivotal role in global affairs further highlight the promising prospects for Chinese language acquisition. In this context, this study adopts the method of random sampling to assess the YCT vocabulary of 30 first-year students from different language backgrounds at a private school in Chiang Mai, Thailand. Meanwhile, semi-structured interviews with 10 experienced Chinese teachers using the method of purposive sampling are employed to further strengthen the research findings and capture their views on integrating gamification technology into Chinese language teaching. The findings, which reveal a clear gap between the vocabulary of Thai primary school students and the expected YCT standards, as well as feasible gamification strategies to address these issues, have prompted Mandarin educators to re-evaluate current Mandarin teaching methods. This study advocates the integration of gamification strategies in Mandarin teaching in primary schools to promote vocabulary acquisition and student participation. By elucidating the benefits of Mandarin proficiency in a global context and providing actionable recommendations for Mandarin teaching improvement, this study contributes to the ongoing discussion on language education and intercultural competency development.

The Association between Music Listening at Home and Subjective Well-Being.

This study examines the association between listening to music at home and subjective well-being, using data from 14,162 respondents in the China General Social Surveys conducted in 2015, 2017, and 2021. Among the respondents, the average happiness score was 3.958. Regression analyzes indicate that frequent music listening is significantly associated with higher happiness levels, with coefficients of 0.384 in the baseline model and 0.570 in the model with control variables. Robustness checks performed across different models support these findings. Instrumental variable analysis, using Mandarin proficiency, yielded a coefficient of 0.212, indicating a robust association despite a slight reduction in magnitude. Heterogeneity analyzes showed consistent associations across genders, religious beliefs, and regions, with slightly stronger associations observed for females and non-religious individuals. Mediation analysis identified mental health and class identity as significant mediators, contributing to a total association of 0.146. These results highlight the positive correlation between music listening and well-being, suggesting the potential value of integrating music resources into well-being strategies.

How does a structurally similar background language influence L3 grammars? A study on the syntax of L2/L3 Mandarin [SI 21/3]

ABSTRACT This article reports on an empirical study of L3 Mandarin, aiming to shed light on transfer effects and their interaction with other factors throughout the L3 acquisition trajectory. A fill-in-the-blank task was employed to examine L2 and L3 acquisition of three types of Mandarin sentence-final particle clusters. Participants in the study were Mandarin native speakers, L1 English-L2 Mandarin speakers, L1 English-L2 Cantonese-L3 Mandarin speakers, and L1 Cantonese-L2 English-L3 Mandarin speakers at low and high Mandarin proficiency levels. Our data support arguments in the L3 literature that transfer at the L3 initial stages is from a structurally more similar language. Facilitation takes place when the instantiation of the target property in the L3 is exactly the same as that in the transfer source language. Overall typological similarity might be helpful when transfer is from the L1, but it does not always facilitate the L3 acquisition of individual properties. For later L3 development, construction frequency and mapping paradigms have a great impact on the acquisition outcome. Moreover, a certain kind of non-facilitative transfer from an L1 is found to persist in L3 Mandarin grammars, which qualitatively supports the Cumulative Input Threshold Hypothesis.

Design and Empirical Study of PSC Course Model Based on AI Program

With the development trends of reform and opening up, modernization of education, and globalization of the economy, the importance of teaching Mandarin proficiency test (PSC) has become increasingly significant. At the same time, the development of course models for Mandarin proficiency test systems assisted by computer networking, AI technology, and mobile applications has emerged. Existing offline and online course platforms suffer from issues such as unsuitability of form, poor interactivity, and lack of universality, which hinder the widespread implementation of PSC courses. In light of this, based on thorough investigation and research, this paper, taking the “Special Textbook for Mandarin Proficiency Test” as a blueprint, combined with Mandarin teaching theory, designed and developed a PSC course model based on AI programs. The learning effectiveness of this model was experimentally tested, and statistical research methods were used to compare and analyze the experimental data. The experimental data showed significant improvement, which was in line with the expected results.

Education Gamification and Student Motivation: A Case Study of Chinese Language Education

<div align="center"><div align="center">A new generation of pupils has grown up with a strong familiarity with technology in the context of Industry 4.0. This technological revolution has made learning a foreign language more critical. However, learning a foreign language can only be accessible with that crucial component- motivation. The purpose of this study was to find out how students' motivation to learn Mandarin was affected by gamification. A gamification application was designed with the Game Development Document (GDD) as a foundational guide, utilizing the Mechanics, Dynamics, and Aesthetics (MDA) architecture. Two schools participated in the experimental research project, with 56 and 58 students divided into control and experimental groups. A questionnaire gathered data, and SPSS was used to compute Cronbach's Alpha. The results showed that gamification increased students' enthusiasm to study Mandarin well. When employing gamification as a teaching strategy, students with different levels of Mandarin proficiency saw varied results. Therefore, gamification can tailor Mandarin language instruction to each student's needs and skill level.</div></div>

Framework for virtual education of COVID-19 vaccines for Mandarin-speaking learners: an educational intervention module.

In the United States, patients with limited English proficiency face significant barriers to comprehending and acting upon health-related information, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic. The ability of health professionals to communicate COVID-19-related information to Mandarin-speaking patients has proved critical in discussions about vaccine efficacy, side effects, and post-vaccine protection. The authors created a one-hour educational module to help Mandarin-speaking medical students better convey COVID-19 vaccine information to Mandarin-only speakers. The module is composed of an educational guide, which introduced key terminology and addressed commonly asked questions, and pre- and post-surveys. The authors recruited 59 Mandarin-speaking medical students all of whom had previously completed a medical Mandarin elective. The module and surveys were distributed and completed in August 2021. Data analysis measured the change in aggregate mean for subjective five-point Likert-scale questions and change in percent accuracy for objective knowledge-based questions. 86.4% of participants were primary English speakers with variable levels of Mandarin proficiency. The educational module significantly improved participants' subjective comfort level in discussing the COVID-19 vaccine in English and Mandarin. The largest improvement in both English and Mandarin was demonstrated in participants' ability to explain differences between the COVID-19 vaccines, with an aggregate mean improvement of 0.39 for English and 1.48 for Mandarin. Survey respondents also demonstrated increased percent accuracy in knowledge-based objective questions in Mandarin. This module provides Mandarin-learning medical students with skills to deliver reliable information to the general population and acts as a model for the continued development of educational modules for multilingual medical professionals.

Framework for virtual education of COVID-19 vaccines for Mandarin-speaking learners: an educational intervention module

Background: In the United States, patients with limited English proficiency face significant barriers to comprehending and acting upon health-related information, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic. The ability of health professionals to communicate COVID-19-related information to Mandarin-speaking patients has proved critical in discussions about vaccine efficacy, side effects, and post-vaccine protection. Methods: The authors created a one-hour educational module to help Mandarin-speaking medical students better convey COVID-19 vaccine information to Mandarin-only speakers. The module is composed of an educational guide, which introduced key terminology and addressed commonly asked questions, and pre- and post-surveys. The authors recruited 59 Mandarin-speaking medical students all of whom had previously completed a medical Mandarin elective. The module and surveys were distributed and completed in August 2021. Data analysis measured the change in aggregate mean for subjective five-point Likert-scale questions and change in percent accuracy for objective knowledge-based questions. Results: 86.4% of participants were primary English speakers with variable levels of Mandarin proficiency. The educational module significantly improved participants' subjective comfort level in discussing the COVID-19 vaccine in English and Mandarin. The largest improvement in both English and Mandarin was demonstrated in participants' ability to explain differences between the COVID-19 vaccines, with an aggregate mean improvement of 0.39 for English and 1.48 for Mandarin. Survey respondents also demonstrated increased percent accuracy in knowledge-based objective questions in Mandarin. Conclusions: This module provides Mandarin-learning medical students with skills to deliver reliable information to the general population and acts as a model for the continued development of educational modules for multilingual medical professionals.

The economic value of language in China: How important is Mandarin proficiency in the Chinese labor market? A bounding approach

To shed light on the effectiveness of promoting the use of Mandarin, this paper analyses the economic value of Mandarin in the Chinese labor market using data from the 2016 wave of the China Labor-force Dynamics Survey. To address the self-selection issue, we use both an instrumental variable (IV) and nonparametric bounding approaches. Our results show that the overall return on Mandarin proficiency is positive, ranging from 10.5% to 49.9% across the whole sample. A driving mechanism is that workers with a high Mandarin proficiency are more likely to find jobs that match their expertise, which then increases their productivity in the workplace. We also find that the returns are heterogeneous across different subgroups: (1) Women benefit more than men, which suggests that language proficiency can help reduce the gender wage gap; (2) The return on Mandarin proficiency is statistically significant and positive for young and middle-aged workers, but there is not enough evidence for older workers; (3) The return is larger for individuals living in urban areas than those in rural areas. In addition, we find that the IV method cannot be extrapolated to obtain the marginal returns across different treatment groups, as its coefficient is incredibly large, thus overestimating the economic returns on Mandarin proficiency.

Phonolexical processing of Mandarin segments and tones by English speakers at different Mandarin proficiency levels

The current study examined the phonolexical processing of Mandarin segments and tones by English speakers at different Mandarin proficiency levels. Eleven English speakers naive to Mandarin, 15 intermediate and 9 advanced second language (L2) learners participated in a word-learning experiment. After learning the sound and meaning of 16 Mandarin disyllabic words, they judged the matching between sound and meaning pairs, with half of the pairs being complete matches while the other half contained segmental or tonal mismatches. The results showed that all three groups were more sensitive to segmental than tonal mismatches. The two learner groups outperformed the Naive group on segmental mismatches but not on tonal mismatches. However, their reaction times revealed that the learners but not the Naive group attended to tonal variations. The current findings suggest that increasing L2 experience has limited benefit on learners’ phonolexical processing of L2 tones, probably due to their non-tonal native language background. Experience in a tonal L2 may enhance learners’ attention to the tonal dimension but may not necessarily improve their accuracy.

The Ongoing Business of Chinese-Language Reform: A View from the Periphery of Hong Kong in the Past Half Century

Against the backdrop of the changing meaning of the “Chinese” language in Hong Kong, this article explores how Mandarin, once an unproblematic link to a nebulous Chinese nation for Hongkongers, now reflects anti-mainland sentiments. In the 1970s, Hong Kong Chinese who fought against English colonial oppression embraced Cantonese as their de facto Chinese language even as some conceded the broader allure of Mandarin. As the popularity of Cantonese rose, the appeal of Mandarin lingered but did not result in its higher currency. In the period leading up to the 1997 handover, while the colonial government did not mandate the study of Mandarin, its economic practicality surged, especially as the reform era engineered tremendous opportunities for Hongkongers in the mainland. Ironically, as Hongkongers have registered enhanced Mandarin proficiency, mounting resentment toward Mandarin in the city over the past two decades has come to represent a response to intensifying mainland control over Hong Kong.

Does language make people more prosocial? The influence of Mandarin proficiency on donation behavior.

Both the effects of language proficiency on individual outcomes, and the influencing factors of individual donation arouse wide concern, but researchers have hardly probed into the relationship between language proficiency and donation behavior. Using the data from the 2012 China General Social Survey (CGSS) and the binary logistic regression model as the benchmark model, this study empirically examines the influence and mechanism of language proficiency on donation behavior. It is revealed that Mandarin proficiency has significant positive influence on individual donation behavior. According to the results of the variable substitution practice and the instrumental variable regression based on the two-stage least square model, the above conclusion remains robust. The heterogeneity test shows that Mandarin proficiency of male, southern and rural residents has more obvious impact on donation behavior. The multiple intermediary effect test indicates that perceived social responsibility and subjective social status partially mediate the relationship between Mandarin proficiency and donation behavior. Therefore, it indicates that language proficiency has a prosocial effect, which makes people more prosocial. This study contributes to the literature on donation behavior by examining the influencing mechanism of Mandarin proficiency on individual donation, and further the effects of language proficiency on individual outcomes, thereby providing theoretical and empirical support for the formulation of policies for the promotion of Mandarin and social donation in China.

Mandarin's Impact on Poverty Alleviation: An Empirical Study Based on Economic and Social Interaction Dimensions

This paper studies the effect of Mandarin proficiency on poverty reduction and its mechanism. The China General Social Survey (CGSS) is taken as the data source. From the perspective of social integration, the poverty reduction effect of Putonghua and its mechanism are empirically studied from the perspective of social interaction, social fairness, and social trust. The findings showed that improving the ability to listen and speak Mandarin positively affects social interaction, social trust, and social fairness. It showed that Putonghua proficiency positively correlates with the suppression of economic poverty. After the occurrence of poverty, whether a sample of absolute poverty or relative poverty, the ability to listen and speak in Mandarin has a specific inhibitory effect on social interaction, social trust, and social fairness. After the occurrence of poverty, the frequency of social interaction, social trust, and social public since have been reduced to a certain extent. Specifically, the ability to express Mandarin has shown remarkable results in improving social interaction, and the ability to listen among ordinary people has shown remarkable results in enhancing social fairness. The results of this paper provide empirical evidence of poverty alleviation in China via Improving Mandarin Proficiency. This research is also of great significance for optimizing poverty alleviation paths through language in the post-poverty alleviation era.

Maternal heritage language proficiency and child bilingual heritage language learning

ABSTRACT ‘Should I talk to my child in a language that I am not good at?’ This question reveals the dilemma that many bilingual parents are facing. In the current study, 301 English-Mandarin bilinguals’ mothers in Singapore self-evaluated their Mandarin proficiency and we assessed the 4–5 years old children’s Mandarin receptive vocabulary and grammar. We also investigated children’s bilingual language exposure with a parental questionnaire and children’s phonological short-term memory with CTOPP. The results indicated that mothers’ Mandarin proficiency would affect the amount of Mandarin they speak to their children. Those mothers with a medium- or high-level Mandarin proficiency demonstrated a significantly stronger influence on children’s Mandarin vocabulary and grammar than the mothers with lower Mandarin proficiency. Specifically, mothers’ Mandarin proficiency mediated the relations between familial SES and children’s Mandarin skills after controlling children’s Mandarin exposure at home, gender, and short-term phonological memory. Our findings suggest the unique role that maternal Mandarin proficiency plays in early heritage language learning. It indicates that mothers who have a decent command of heritage language should be encouraged to use this language more often with their children, considering maternal heritage language proficiency as a promotive factor from the influence of low SES.

Interpretation of Mandarin pronouns and reflexives by L1-Korean and L1-English learners of Mandarin

This study investigates (1) whether second language learners (L2ers) acquire the Mandarin system of pronouns and reflexives despite differences from their first languages (L1s) and (2) whether L1-English and L1-Korean L2ers differ due to L1-transfer. Unlike English, Mandarin and Korean allow long-distance (LD) reflexives. While himself/ herself and the Mandarin equivalent taziji both require local readings, Mandarin ziji ‘self’ allows both local and LD readings. In Korean, caki and casin allow LD readings while caki-casin requires local readings. For pronouns, English him/ her and Mandarin ta both disallow local readings while Korean ku/ kunye allows them. These cross-linguistic differences lead to different transfer-based predictions for L1-Korean and L1-English L2-Mandarin learners. Sixty-two Mandarin native speakers, 42 L1-Korean L2ers, and 32 L1-English L2ers completed a picture-based Truth Value Judgment Task and a Mandarin proficiency test. Results show that proficiency-matched L2ers from both L1s predominantly allowed only local readings of ziji, suggesting that the local reading is the default option, and that Korean speakers do not transfer the properties of Korean simplex reflexives onto ziji, possibly because LD ziji is logophoric, while caki is not. Regarding ta, L1-Korean L2ers under-accepted LD readings and over-accepted local readings, a result that can be attributed to transfer, per Kim’s analysis that Rule I, posited by Grodzinsky and Reinhart, that regulates the distribution of pronouns is weak or absent in Korean.

The Second-Language Productivity of Two Mandarin Tone Sandhi Patterns

This study investigates whether the phonetic motivation of two Mandarin tone sandhi patterns influences second-language (L2) learners’ productivity in novel words. Research has suggested that the Mandarin third tone sandhi (T3 sandhi) and Half-T3 sandhi might pose different learning challenges for L2 learners, but there is no evidence that phonetic motivation influences L2 learners’ productive application of the tone sandhi rules. This study re-examines L2 learners’ productive application of the two sandhi patterns and further tests whether their productivity patterns change with increasing Mandarin proficiency. Native Mandarin speakers and Korean-speaking learners of Mandarin with high and low proficiency levels completed a wug production experiment that included both real and novel Mandarin disyllabic words. The results of a comparison of real and novel words showed a low productivity of the T3 sandhi among the L2 learners, but no such pattern was found for the Half-T3 sandhi. The differences in the productivity of the two sandhi patterns for L2 learners did not change with increasing Mandarin proficiency, although there was a difference in the production of novel words involving the T3 sandhi, which may be explained by improved metalinguistic knowledge. These results indicated the relevance of phonetic motivation to L2 productivity of the tone sandhi patterns in Mandarin.

The Construction of Multi-Teaching Modes of Higher Vocational Mandarin Training Courses

As one of the working languages of the United Nations, mandarin is the way for China to face the world and go to the world. A fluent standard of Mandarin is very important for students in higher vocational colleges. Today, when the Ministry of Education continues to promote the quality education of higher vocational students, teachers and schools must fully implement the era of teaching and educating people, building morality, and cultivating all-round development. The teaching goal of newcomers is to improve the comprehensive level of oral communication and communication of vocational college students, and to help vocational college students overcome many difficulties and pass the mandarin proficiency test.

Paving the Way for Mandarin Language Learning: MOOCs Style

The design and implementation of MOOCs with focus on language learning has yet to be widely explored in Malaysia. The ability to speak Mandarin is an advantage and any means to facilitate the learning of Mandarin is sought after. The paper centers on the use of Introductory Mandarin 1 as an interactive MOOCs Mandarin Language Learning for Elementary Mandarin. This research explores the use of Introductory Mandarin 1 as a method to strengthen learners’ four language skills, improve learners’ vocabularies with visual-verbal-auditory features, and create a flexible, enjoyable, flip and active learning environment via MOOC platform. Using Gagne's Model of Instructional Design as the theoretical framework, this paper reports a quantitative survey study involving 265 students across 8 faculties at Universiti Teknologi MARA. These students enrolled voluntarily in Elementary Mandarin 1 as a supplementary learning tool. Survey results showed that learners’ Mandarin proficiency, specifically communicative language skills, such as listening, pronunciation, writing, speaking, and vocabulary is improved. The research also confirmed the useability of MOOC as a supplementary material to assist the teaching and learning of Mandarin. Possible future research can focus on adding in aspects of assessments into MOOC or the feasibility of turning MOOC content into micro-credential courses.

Multilingual Lexical Development : A case of Children of Indonesian Immigrants in Taiwan


 The number of immigrants increases tremendously in Taiwan. These recent immigrants originate from a variety of ethnicities; some are Han Chinese from Mainland China, others are mainly from Southeast Asian countries, with Vietnamese as the largest group, followed by Indonesians, Thai, and then Philippines. They brought with them their native languages and cultures (Chen,2010). Kuo (2008) found no difference in the lexical development of 2-6- year-old children of Vietnamese mothers and Taiwanese mothers, but children of Indonesian mothers were found to be slower (Kuo, 2015). This study aim to evaluate the the vocabulary size in Indonesian, Mandarin, and Taiwanese for children of Indonesian immigrants in Taiwan. The researcher investigated whether Indonesian mothers in Taiwan with limited Mandarin proficiency are able to provide the kind of input to facilitate their children’s Indonesian, Mandarin and Taiwanese acquisition or not.This study used Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test to assess their lexical development in Indonesian and Mandarin. The Taiwanese language measure tool is an application developed by Kuo (2017). This study revealed that the vocabulary score of Indonesian score were found to be lower than Mandarin and Taiwanese score and Mandarin score higher than Taiwanese score. The factors related to children’s lexical development were also investigated no correlation between Indonesian mother’s with their children in Indonesian language, because most of them communicate with their limited Mandarin or Taiwanese. Finally, this research should help people to have a better understanding about the phenomenon of multilingual family, where multilingual has become common in the society.
 
 Keyword : Multilingualism, lexical development, immigrant children, vocabulary size