Urban Green Space Management Research Articles

Modeling the environmental impacts of urban land use and land cover change—a study in Merseyside, UK

There is a lack of information on the environmental effects of urban change and the dynamics of greenspace. Such information is essential for a better understanding of the sustainability of urban development processes, both planned and unplanned. We therefore investigated the changes in land use and land cover of 11 residential areas in Merseyside, UK, using aerial photographs taken in 1975 and 2000. We then modeled how these changes would alter three important environmental parameters: surface temperature, runoff of rainfall, and greenspace diversity. These changes were then related to the socio-economic status of the areas, as measured by an index of multiple deprivation. The comparisons revealed a loss of greenspace in all 11 case study sites Overall, the more affluent, low density areas lost more greenspace, especially of tree cover. A major cause was infill development whereby gardens were built over. However, greenspace was also lost in already densely built-up, deprived areas due to the reuse of derelict land. As a consequence, the models used in this study predicted negative environmental impacts for all areas. The results emphasize the need to critically review concepts such as urban densification and give more weight to the preservation and management of urban greenspaces.

Recreation–amenity use and contingent valuation of urban greenspaces in Guangzhou, China

Recreational opportunities and amenities are important human-use services generated by urban greenspaces. This study explored the use of pattern and behavior of urban greenspaces in Guangzhou city, south China. The monetary value of the non-priced benefits was gauged by the contingent valuation method using willingness-to-pay and open-ended payment card approaches. A questionnaire gleaned data by face-to-face interviews of 340 respondents in the 18–70 age group, dwelling in 34 residential street blocks selected by clustered sampling. Guangzhou residents actively used urban greenspaces, accompanied mainly by family members. Parks were the most popular venues, whereas institutional greenspaces served as surrogate parks. Visitation is mainly induced by accessibility, followed by high green coverage and quality of the ambience. Small and low-quality sites near homes were shunned. Residents of the compact city harbored subdued expectation for privacy and solitude. They are accustomed to paying greenspace entrance fees. Ninety-six point six per cent of respondents were willing to pay to use urban greenspaces, notably more than other cities, and indicating the importance of salubrious outdoor recreation as a leisure pursuit. Conservative estimate of average willingness-to-pay was RMB17.40/person/month (US$1.00 = RMB8.26), higher than actual entrance-fee payment. Willingness-to-pay was significantly associated with income, and its marginal effect verified by an ordered probit model which hinted the treatment of urban greenspaces as superior goods. Aggregate monetary value of urban greenspaces attained RMB547 million per year which outstripped Guangzhou's annual expenditures on urban greenspaces by six times. This study verified the applicability of contingent valuation to urban greenspaces in China with socioeconomic, cultural and political backgrounds that are different from many countries. The results could assist cost-benefit analysis to justify more resources for development and management of urban greenspaces, with implications on incorporating public opinions in a precision planning process in the quest towards sustainable cities.

Modeling the environmental impacts of urban land use and land cover change—a study in Merseyside, UK

There is a lack of information on the environmental effects of urban change and the dynamics of greenspace. Such information is essential for a better understanding of the sustainability of urban development processes, both planned and unplanned. We therefore investigated the changes in land use and land cover of 11 residential areas in Merseyside, UK, using aerial photographs taken in 1975 and 2000. We then modeled how these changes would alter three important environmental parameters: surface temperature, runoff of rainfall, and greenspace diversity. These changes were then related to the socio-economic status of the areas, as measured by an index of multiple deprivation. The comparisons revealed a loss of greenspace in all 11 case study sites Overall, the more affluent, low density areas lost more greenspace, especially of tree cover. A major cause was infill development whereby gardens were built over. However, greenspace was also lost in already densely built-up, deprived areas due to the reuse of derelict land. As a consequence, the models used in this study predicted negative environmental impacts for all areas. The results emphasize the need to critically review concepts such as urban densification and give more weight to the preservation and management of urban greenspaces.

Urban land resources and urban planting — case studies from Denmark

Trees benefit urban communities environmentally, esthetically and recreationally. This raises the question of whether Denmark’s towns have enough space for more trees. A research project investigated this by examining in detail the potential for more sustainable planning and management of urban green space in towns with 10,000–40,000 inhabitants and was completed in 1999. The paper describes the vegetation cover in selected urban areas, including the cover of woody vegetation (trees and shrubs) and discusses the land area potentially available for supplementary planting in urban zones. The method used to map urban vegetation is discussed and related to Denmark’s administrative practice and planning system. Case studies are presented for various categories of urban land use to highlight the variation in vegetation cover and to identify the land area available for increasing tree cover. Apart from undeveloped urban land, the largest areas potentially available for planting included industrial zones, institutional zones and apartment complexes. Other types of residential district lacked the coherent space normally required for sustainable planting. The cover of trees and shrubs in the case study towns is very limited, but large areas of non-functional lawn could be available for planting. Lawn comprised the largest proportion of the urban surface cover in the case studies. The findings of the case studies were assembled into data sets relating to each type of urban zone and summed up in green structure maps based on geographical information systems. This approach can provide an overview of best practices to allow areas lacking vegetation cover to be identified. This assessment method can usefully be applied to incorporate issues related to the urban natural environment and urban greening potential into conventional planning practice in Denmark’s municipalities.

Managing Ontario's urban landscape

Abstract In Canada, increasing costs of maintenance, a shifting perception of what makes a city beautiful, a recognition of the needs and the importance of urban wildlife, and changing recreational demands are all contributing to a pressure for change in current practice. This study examines the extent to which the ecological approach has influenced the design and management of urban green space in Canada, focusing on the city of Toronto and its surrounding region as an example.

Nature conservation, water and urban areas in Britain

The paper describes the ecology and nature conservation interest of the aquatic ecosystems of urban Britain. The paucity of published information is attributed to the historical lack of interest by the government's ecological and nature conservation agencies, research workers, and those concerned with the management of urban green space. Urban water bodies are classified according to their origins and use, as modified by age, size, water quality and level of public use. The plants and animals to be found in each category are described. Most of the information relates to London and to birds. However, London is atypical in many respects because of its size, large estuary, large parks, an active natural history society, and because it is the capital city. Apart from Milton Keynes (a new town) and some areas of the West Midlands, there is very little information about the ecosystems of other British towns and cities. The data indicate the importance of urban water bodies for the conservation of wildlife in Britain. The potential for improving the value for nature by ecological engineering is demonstrated. The diffused management responsibilities are described together with the need to impose a discipline on the maintenance authorities by the preparation of management plans in order to ensure continuity and consistency of treatment. A programme of research is advocated on the basis of the re-allocation of existing funds. The prime objective of such a programme is the acquisition of pragmatic information that will allow planning, design and maintenance operations to respond to inevitable development whilst maintaining a high-quality environment.

In search of greener towns

Around 1970 a quiet revolution occurred in several European countries involving the use of naturalistic design approaches and ecological principles in the design and management of urban green spaces. The objective was to bring the qualities of nature into peoples’ daily lives and provide a richer external living environment. Parallel programmes of community participation and environmental education were involved. Successful projects in Holland, Sweden and Britain are described. These indicate that despoiled urban and urban‐fringe land can be quickly and economically transformed into green environments which are attractive for living and commercial investment. A reorganisation of Local Authority landscape resources is recommended.