Riparian Zone Management Research Articles

Riparian Zone Assessment and Management: an Integrated Review Using Geospatial Technology

Riparian Zone Assessment and Management: an Integrated Review Using Geospatial Technology

Mowers versus growers: Riparian buffer management in the Southern Blue Ridge Mountains, USA

AbstractDespite long‐standing knowledge of the benefits of riparian buffers for mitigating nonpoint source pollution, many streams are unprotected by buffers. Even landowners who understand ecological values of buffers mow riparian vegetation to the streambank. Do trends in rural riparian conditions reflect the development of riparian forest science? What motivates residential riparian management actions? Using high‐resolution orthoimagery, we quantified riparian conditions and trends between 1998 and 2015 in the rural upper Little Tennessee River basin in Macon County, North Carolina and explored how landowners view riparian zone management and riparian restoration programs. Buffer composition in 2015 was as follows: no buffer (32.5%), narrow (19.3%), forested (26.7%), shrub (7.2%), and intermediate (7.0%). Relative to 1998, the greatest decrease occurred in the no buffer class (−17.7%, 46 km) and the largest increases occurred in the shrub (+72.5%, 20 km) and narrow (12.6%, 14 km) classes. Forested buffer marginally increased. Semi‐structured interview data suggest that landowners prioritize recreational and scenic aspects of riparian buffers over ecological functions such as filtration and bank stabilization. Riparian restoration programs might be made more enticing to non‐adopters if outreach language appealed to landowner priorities, design elements demonstrated intentional management, and program managers highlighted areas where ecological goals and landowner values align.

Baseline assessment of the hydrological network and land use in riparian buffers of Pampean streams of Uruguay.

The integrated assessment of stream networks and terrestrial land use contributes a critical foundation for understanding and mitigating potential impacts on stream ecology. Riparian zone delineation and management is a key component for regulating water quality, particularly in agricultural watersheds. We present a national assessment of riparian zone land uses according to stream order for the entire hydrological network in the Uruguayan landscape in Southeastern South America. We classified over 82,500km of streams and rivers in Uruguay into seven Strahler order classes and delineated riparian buffers of 100 and 500m, depending on stream order, covering a total of 13% of the terrestrial land area in Uruguay. Natural vegetation cover in riparian zones averaged 77% among basins, whereby natural grassland dominated first and second order stream buffers at 58% and 49%, respectively. This highlighted the importance of grasslands in headwater regions of the country. Riparian forests formed corridors along larger streams, representing a mere 9% of buffers in first order streams but reaching 46% of buffers of 6th order streams. Among the six major basins of Uruguay, we found differences in the relative importance of riparian forests and crop cover in headwater stream riparian zones, as well as differences in relative crop cover within riparian zones. Results show that streams in subtropical grassland landscapes originate in open grassland environments, which has major implications for thermal regimes, carbon inputs, and stream biodiversity. Riparian buffer management should consider geographic differences among different basins and ecoregions within Uruguay.

Habitat change and interspecific associations mediate the response of riparian ground-dwelling arthropod assemblages to flooding in the Three Gorges Reservoir

Seasonal water level fluctuation is a typical characteristic of reservoirs created by dams on rivers. Due to their important roles in connecting ecological processes between riparian zones and adjacent uplands or waterbodies, ground-dwelling arthropods are essential components for maintaining riparian ecosystem health. However, the dynamic characteristics and response mechanisms of ground-dwelling arthropod assemblages to seasonal water level fluctuations have not been clearly established. We investigated ground-dwelling arthropods before and after summer floods (along with the influence of planned winter impoundment) in the drawdown zone of the Three Gorges Reservoir. Redundancy analysis and examination of interspecific associations were conducted to explore driving mechanisms for variations in these arthropod assemblages. Our results demonstrated that: i. floods are dominant mediating factors for variations in ground-dwelling arthropod assemblages in riparian zones; ii. species composition and abundances of ground-dwelling arthropod assemblages were in a state of dynamic change under the influence of floods; iii. Interplay of habitat modifications and interspecific associations influenced the composition as well as the distribution of ground-dwelling arthropods. We suggest that ground-dwelling arthropods are sensitive indicators for riparian ecosystem health and are valuable for evaluating work on the conservation and management of riparian zones.

Applying the “Goldilocks Rule” to Riparian Buffer Widths for Forested Headwater Streams across the Contiguous U.S.—How Much Is “Just Right”?

Delineating riparian management zones (RMZ) around streams to protect riparian ecological functions is critical during forest management. This study compared the area dedicated to RMZ using the USFS functional-based riparian buffer approach versus individual state-defined riparian buffer allocation strategies along headwater streams across 17 states within the US. The USFS method uses a variable-width riparian buffer that seeks to capture the functions of a riparian area. Our study sought to contrast this USFS method with various state-defined RMZ guidelines. The functional approach delineated the highest percentages of the watershed area around headwater streams in most watersheds, sometimes >20% of forestland, whereas state RMZ guidelines delineated <10% of forestland around headwater streams in many watersheds. Although many state guidelines failed to identify the variable widths of functional riparian areas, some watersheds in the Great Lakes states over-allocated forestland as riparian when compared to a functional riparian delineation. The topographic and forest composition differences observed across the study area were not represented by their respective state RMZ guidelines, and these variables strongly influence the delineation of a functional RMZ.

Effects of hydrological regime on Taxodium ascendens plant decomposition and nutrient dynamics in the Three Gorges Reservoir riparian zone

Riparian plants are an integral part of the river ecosystem and have significant impacts on the water quality of the reservoir area. The special hydrological process of the riparian zone makes it possible to become a “source” or “sink” of organic matter and nutrients. This study quantifies the flooding period on the decomposition as well as nutrient dynamics of leaves from artificially regenerated Taxodium ascendens in the riparian zone of the Three Gorges Reservoir (TGR) in China. Five decomposition treatment groups were exposed to 10, 30, 60, 90, and 180 days of decomposition: conventional water (T1), mild drought stress (T2), saturated water content (T3), light flooding stress (T4), and severe flooding stress (T5). In T4 and T5, the decomposition rate of T. ascendens leaves was significantly higher than that of T1, T2, and T3. All the leaf C, N, P, and K concentrations at the end of the test were lower than their respective starting values. The concentrations of N and P in the overlying water decrease to various degrees due to decomposition. At the end of the study, the TN content was 1.34 times (T4) and 1.16 times (T5) higher than that of the control group, and the TP content was 3.97 times (T4) and 3.21 times (T5) higher than that of the control group. Leaf decomposition increases the content of N and P in the overlying water under flood conditions, which adversely affects the water environment. This study establishes a theoretical framework for understanding how hydrological processes affect leaf decomposition and nutrient release in riparian areas, providing a scientific basis for riparian zone management in TGR.

Remote Sensing of Riparian Ecosystems

Riparian zones are dynamic ecosystems that form at the interface between the aquatic and terrestrial components of a landscape. They are shaped by complex interactions between the biophysical components of river systems, including hydrology, geomorphology, and vegetation. Remote sensing technology is a powerful tool useful for understanding riparian form, function, and change over time, as it allows for the continuous collection of geospatial data over large areas. This paper provides an overview of studies published from 1991 to 2021 that have used remote sensing techniques to map and understand the processes that shape riparian habitats and their ecological functions. In total, 257 articles were reviewed and organised into six main categories (physical channel properties; morphology and vegetation or field survey; canopy detection; application of vegetation and water indices; riparian vegetation; and fauna habitat assessment). The majority of studies used aerial RGB imagery for river reaches up to 100 km in length and Landsat satellite imagery for river reaches from 100 to 1000 km in length. During the recent decade, UAVs (unmanned aerial vehicles) have been widely used for low-cost monitoring and mapping of riverine and riparian environments. However, the transfer of RS data to managers and stakeholders for systematic monitoring as a source of decision making for and successful management of riparian zones remains one of the main challenges.

Going with the flow? The role of intention in riparian zone management

Going with the flow? The role of intention in riparian zone management

Riparian Zones—From Policy Neglected to Policy Integrated

1. Riparian zones are vital areas of interaction between land and rivers and are often degraded by several pressures such as urbanisation, intensive agriculture and river engineering works. 2. This policy brief provides five key policy messages and recommendations to be considered by policy-makers, scientists, managers, and stakeholders to enhance riparian zone management. 3. Adopting an integrated socio-economic and environmentally dynamic view will ensure the sustainable management of riparian zones. 4. In light of climate change, it is critically important to conserve and/or restore the ecological integrity of riparian zones. 5. European Union Directives and national-scale legislation and regulations need updating to ensure coordinated implementation of riparian zone-related policies. 6. Stakeholder knowledge exchange, policy co-creation and adaptive management are key to enhancing riparian zone functions.

Using fuzzy logic-based hybrid modeling to guide riparian best management practices selection in tributaries of the Minnesota River Basin

Riparian corridors serve as buffer zones between land and water, thereby supporting essential ecosystem services. Though riparian zones occupy around 1% of land area in midwestern USA watersheds, their management has significant societal consequences on downstream ecosystem services, such as water quantity and quality. The management of riparian zones in the Minnesota River Basin (MRB) needs a comprehensive decision support framework (DSF) to guide conservationists to invest resources efficiently. This study attempts to classify riparian zones based on three classes: stream features, riparian characteristics, and riparian functions to suggest suitable Best Management Practices (BMPs). We developed a comprehensive hybrid decision support framework (DSF) by integrating fuzzy analytical hierarchy process (AHP) and fuzzy inference system (FIS) to propose riparian BMPs based on the physical characteristics of stream, riparian zone, and desired riparian functions. The DSF accommodates the uncertainty associated with the stakeholder's perceptions towards the riparian zone classes while also accounting for continuous variation in riparian dynamics. The advantage of a hybrid model is its ability to allow the stakeholders to prioritize critical criteria belonging to the classes to ensure that they have maximum impact on the riparian BMPs proposed by the model. We have demonstrated the model using three Minnesota River tributaries at the Hydrologic Unit Code (HUC)-8, HUC-10, HUC-12 scales. Results show that BMPs such as riparian revegetation, buffer strips, wetland management, the addition of woody debris, and an increase in tree cover obtained the highest scores and occupied 35%, 25%, 15%, 10%, and 10% of the observed sites, respectively.

Riparian buffer effects on headwater-stream vertebrates and habitats five years after a second upland-forest thinning in western Oregon, USA

Riparian-management zones protect aquatic species and their habitats in managed forests, yet the effects of riparian-management alternatives warrant further study. We examined effects of alternative riparian-buffer widths on fish and amphibians in small headwater streams with upland forest thinning in western Oregon, USA. Previously, we reported apparent lag-time effects developing 10 years after thinning of upland second-growth forest, and additional effects 1–2 years after a second-thinning harvest. Here, we analyze effects on fish and amphibian abundances, body-size metrics, and habitats 5 years after the second thinning at 58 stream reaches across eight study sites. Riparian-buffer effects were evident for several species and species groups: higher densities of fish and amphibians (e.g., coastal giant salamander [Dicamptodon tenebrosus], torrent salamanders [Rhyacotriton spp.], sculpins [family Cottidae]) were detected in reaches with a no-entry one site-potential tree-height buffer (∼70 m wide) in comparison with lower densities in two narrower no-entry buffers (6-m-wide, and a variable-width buffer with a 15-m minimum width) and a thin-through managed buffer (two site-potential tree-heights wide, ∼140 m). In addition, indicator-species analyses showed that torrent salamander densities were positively associated with stream reaches in unmanaged controls. Some amphibians changed habitat affinities slightly, being found during the most-recent sampling in locations with habitats related to larger stream sizes (i.e., more-perennial stream flows) than they had been in earlier sampling. Analyses of body-size metrics showed associations with buffers across 42% of species × post-treatment years analyzed, yet patterns were inconsistent within species, and more consistent associations of body metrics were found with microhabitat types, finding larger animals in pools. Although the mechanism driving changes is unclear, the positive associations of species’ densities with one-tree buffers suggest that either lag-time or cumulative effects of factors associated with treatments are developing, with benefits of wider streamside protections over longer time periods for headwater-associated fish and amphibians. Our findings of higher densities of headwater-reliant Rhyacotriton species in stream-reach treatments with the one-tree buffers, and affinities with unthinned control reaches, support the benefits of greater headwater-stream protections for that species complex, which includes species of conservation concern. The mix of different buffer widths and unmanaged units across our eight sites may be promoting site-scale persistence of a community of aquatic-vertebrate species—a mix of buffer widths with upslope forest management may be an alternative for larger-scale riparian forest-management objectives.

A Bayesian Belief Network learning tool integrates multi-scale effects of riparian buffers on stream invertebrates

Riparian forest buffers have multiple benefits for biodiversity and ecosystem services in both freshwater and terrestrial habitats but are rarely implemented in water ecosystem management, partly reflecting the lack of information on the effectiveness of this measure. In this context, social learning is valuable to inform stakeholders of the efficacy of riparian vegetation in mitigating stream degradation. We aim to develop a Bayesian belief network (BBN) model for application as a learning tool to simulate and assess the reach- and segment-scale effects of riparian vegetation properties and land use on instream invertebrates. We surveyed reach-scale riparian conditions, extracted segment-scale riparian and subcatchment land use information from geographic information system data, and collected macroinvertebrate samples from four catchments in Europe (Belgium, Norway, Romania, and Sweden). We modelled the ecological condition based on the Average Score Per Taxon (ASPT) index, a macroinvertebrate-based index widely used in European bioassessment, as a function of different riparian variables using the BBN modelling approach. The results of the model simulations provided insights into the usefulness of riparian vegetation attributes in enhancing the ecological condition, with reach-scale riparian vegetation quality associated with the strongest improvements in ecological status. Specifically, reach-scale buffer vegetation of score 3 (i.e. moderate quality) generally results in the highest probability of a good ASPT score (99–100%). In contrast, a site with a narrow width of riparian trees and a small area of trees with reach-scale buffer vegetation of score 1 (i.e. low quality) predicts a high probability of a bad ASPT score (74%). The strengths of the BBN model are the ease of interpretation, fast simulation, ability to explicitly indicate uncertainty in model outcomes, and interactivity. These merits point to the potential use of the BBN model in workshop activities to stimulate key learning processes that help inform the management of riparian zones.

Can Understory Plant Composition and Richness Help Designate Riparian Management Zones in Mesic Headwater Forests of the Northeastern United States?

AbstractRiparian buffers implemented to minimize sediment, nutrients, and disturbance impacts on streams during forest operations vary greatly in the degree to which ecological criteria are used in their design. Because most forest operations are concentrated around headwater streams, our primary research objective was to identify a floristically based riparian boundary for headwater streams using plant species composition and indicator species to classify riparian environments distinct from the surrounding upland forest. Within three forested regions of the Northeast US, understory vegetation plots were sampled along perpendicular transects extending from the stream bank into the upland forest. At all sites, species richness was highest adjacent to the stream, decreasing exponentially within 6–12 m from the channel. Species composition closest to the stream was significantly different from all other lateral distances, but identified riparian indicator species were of limited practical use across all sites. However, changes in species richness can serve to identify a riparian area extent up to 6–12 m from headwater streams.

Managing riparian zones for river health improvement: an integrated approach

Riparian zones are among the most valuable ecosystems on the earth. They act as the ecological engineers that improve river health through delivering a range of ecosystem functions. Stream bank stabilization, pollutant and sediment buffering, temperature regulation, provision of energy to river food webs and communities, groundwater recharge and provision of ecological corridors and habitat for wildlife, are among major ecosystem functions of riparian zones that play a great role in river health. Besides these ecosystem functions, riparian zones also provide various ecosystem goods and services for human well-being. But in the current scenario, riparian zones are under severe threat due to agricultural activities, urbanization, river flow alteration, overexploitation, climate change, pollution, and biological invasion. In the present and probable future scenarios of declining river health and global environmental changes, there is a pressing need of an integrated approach for managing riparian zones. This review article aims to advocate an integrated approach for riparian zone management based on various components such as riparian condition assessment, policy framework, stakeholder’s participation, management practices, legislation, and awareness. Authors also discussed riparian zones in context of their concepts, features, functions, and threats.

Effects of Land Use on the Riparian Vegetation along the Njoro and Kamweti Rivers, Kenya

Riparian zones are valuable ecosystems. They act as the ecological engineers that improve river health by delivering a range of ecosystem functions. They play a significant role in river health and provide various ecosystem goods and services for human well-being. Currently, riparian areas are under threat due to intensive human activities such as agriculture and urbanization, which alter riparian ecosystem structure and composition. The main objective of this study was to determine the effect of adjacent land use on the structure and diversity of the riparian vegetation in the Njoro and Kamweti Rivers. Along each river, three sampling sites were selected within the major land use categories which were; forest, agricultural and built-up areas. At each site, three 70 m long transects were established perpendicular to the river. The three plots were systematically established, separated by a 5 m distance along each transect. Forest canopy cover was estimated in percentage. Njoro River riparian vegetation recorded a total of 145 plant species from 40 families where trees and shrubs were dominant in the forest area, and herbs dominated the agricultural and built-up areas. In Kamweti River riparian area, a total of 110 species from 45 families were encountered, in which trees dominated the forest area. A similar trend to the Njoro River was observed, in which herbs were dominant in the agricultural and built-up areas. In Njoro River, the Shannon diversity (H’) values ranged between 2.73 and 3.08 whereas Kamweti River riparian area values ranged from 2.59 to 3.40. At the level of P ≤ 0.05, T-Test revealed that there was no significant difference in plant abundance and diversity between the two rivers, with F = 0.53; P = 0.51 and F = 2.71; P = 0.17. Human-centered disturbances along the Njoro and Kamweti River riparian areas have affected the riparian vegetation as shown by the decrease in plant species diversities, and the change in vegetation composition and distribution across the land uses. Due to the present and probable future scenarios of the changes in riparian vegetation observed, there is a pressing need for an integrated approach for the management of riparian zones based on various components such as riparian condition assessment, policy framework, stakeholder’s participation, management practices, legislation, and awareness.

Ecological Interfaces between Land and Flowing Water: Themes and Trends in Riparian Research and Management

This paper provides an overview of past, present and future themes for research and management of riparian zones, often relating to papers within this Wetlands Special Feature. Riparian research expanded in the United States around 1980 with themes that recognized (1) damage from excessive livestock, or (2) damage from river damming and diversion, and (3) the beneficial capacity of riparian buffers to intercept and assimilate nutrients and other water contaminants. Research expanded globally in the 1990s, with themes including (4) plant life history requirements and (5) reliance on fluvial geomorphic dynamics that enable riparian rejuvenation. Resource managers recognized that riparian areas provide (6) rich wildlife habitats (7) along with valued ecosystem services, (8) which encouraged conservation and restoration initiatives, (9) including environmental flow regimes. Floodplains are (10) vulnerable to invasive plants and management has included biocontrol such as for Tamarix in the American Southwest. Into the twenty-first century, (11) climate change is advancing, and riparian ecosystems may be especially impacted due to the compound challenges from increasing water demand and declining summer flows. As an emerging opportunity, (12) while reservoirs submerge floodplain vegetation, reservoir deltas may support compensatory riparian wetlands. (13) Studies increasingly utilize remote sensing tools including satellite imagery, LiDAR and unmanned aircraft systems, and (14) the coordination of large data sets invites digital ecology, including artificial intelligence and machine learning. Since riparian zones are centres for human activities, (15) there are opportunities for citizen science, social media and internet applications, which will increasingly democratize riparian research and management.

Thresholds of freshwater biodiversity in response to riparian vegetation loss in the Neotropical region

Abstract Protecting riparian vegetation around streams is vital in reducing the detrimental effects of environmental change on freshwater ecosystems and in maintaining aquatic biodiversity. Thus, identifying ecological thresholds is useful for defining regulatory limits and for guiding the management of riparian zones towards the conservation of freshwater biota. Using nationwide data on fish and invertebrates occurring in small Brazilian streams, we estimated thresholds of native vegetation loss in which there are abrupt changes in the occurrence and abundance of freshwater bioindicators and tested whether there are congruent responses among different biomes, biological groups and riparian buffer sizes. Mean thresholds of native vegetation cover loss varied widely among biomes, buffer sizes and biological groups: ranging from 0.5% to 77.4% for fish, from 2.9% to 37.0% for aquatic invertebrates and from 3.8% to 43.2% for a subset of aquatic invertebrates. Confidence intervals for thresholds were wide, but the minimum values of these intervals were lower for the smaller riparian buffers (50 and 100 m) than larger ones (200 and 500 m), indicating that land use should be kept away from the streams. Also, thresholds occurred at a lower percentage of riparian vegetation loss in the smaller buffers, and were critically lower for invertebrates: reducing only 6.5% of native vegetation cover within a 50‐m riparian buffer is enough to cross thresholds for invertebrates. Synthesis and applications. The high variability in biodiversity responses to loss of native riparian vegetation suggests caution in the use of a single riparian width for conservation actions or policy definitions nationwide. The most sensitive bioindicators can be used as early warning signals of abrupt changes in freshwater biodiversity. In practice, maintaining at least 50‐m wide riparian reserves on each side of streams would be more effective to protect freshwater biodiversity in Brazil. However, incentives and conservation strategies to protect even wider riparian reserves (~100 m) and also taking into consideration the regional context will promote a greater benefit. This information should be used to set conservation goals and to create complementary mechanisms and policies to protect wider riparian reserves than those currently required by the federal law.

Hotspot of dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA) process in freshwater sediments of riparian zones

Dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA), an important intermediate process in the N-cycle, links N-compound oxidation and reduction processes. Hence, the oxic-anoxic interface would be the hotspot of the DNRA process. In freshwater ecosystems, the riparian zone is the most typical carrier of the oxic-anoxic interface. Here we report spatio-temporal evidence of a higher abundance and rate of DNRA in the riparian zone than in the open water sediments based on molecular and 15N isotopic-tracing technologies, hence signifying a hotspot for the DNRA process. These abudance and rates were significantly higher than those in open water sediments. 15N isotopic paring technology revealed that the DNRA hotspot promoted higher rates of N-compound oxidation (NO2−), reduction (NO3− and DNRA), and N2 production (anammox and denitrification) in the riparian zone than those in open water sediment. However, high-through sequencing analysis showed that the DNRA bacteria in the riparian zone and openwater sediments were insignificantly different. Network and correlation analysis showed that the DNRA abundance and rates were significantly positively correlated with TOM, TC/NH4+, and TC/NO2−, but not with the dominant genera (Anaeromyxobacter, Lacunisphaera, and Sorangium), which played different roles on the connection in the respective community networks. The DNRA process in the riparian zone could be driven mainly by the related environmental biogeochemical characteristics induced by anthropogenic changes, followed by microbial processes. This result provides valuable information for the management of riparian zones because anthropogenic changes in the riparian water table are expected to increase, inducing consequent changes in the reduction from NO3− to NH4+.

Germination and Growth of Native and Invasive Plants on Soil Associated with Biological Control of Tamarisk (Tamarix spp.)

Introductions of biocontrol beetles (tamarisk beetles) are causing dieback of exotic tamarisk in riparian zones across the western United States, yet factors that determine plant communities that follow tamarisk dieback are poorly understood. Tamarisk-dominated soils are generally higher in nutrients, organic matter, and salts than nearby soils, and these soil attributes might influence the trajectory of community change. To assess physical and chemical drivers of plant colonization after beetle-induced tamarisk dieback, we conducted separate germination and growth experiments using soil and litter collected beneath defoliated tamarisk trees. Focal species were two common native (red threeawn, sand dropseed) and two common invasive exotic plants (Russian knapweed, downy brome), planted alone and in combination. Nutrient, salinity, wood chip, and litter manipulations examined how tamarisk litter affects the growth of other species in a context of riparian zone management. Tamarisk litter, tamarisk litter l...

Protecting timberland RMZs through carbon markets: A protocol for riparian carbon offsets

Riparian Management Zone (RMZ) allocations can place a burden on landowners due to restrictions (sometimes prohibitions) on harvesting. The opportunity cost for the landowner may be minimized by shifting the primary management objective in RMZs from timber production to compensation for above-ground carbon. Our primary objective was to compare long-term net revenue generating potential of RMZs under three scenarios: (I) compensation for carbon credits without harvesting; (II) partial harvesting using Best Management Practices (BMP) guidelines without carbon credits; (III) partial harvesting combined with carbon credits as per the California Compliance Offset Protocol. Basic stand data on trees of 2.5 cm and higher were collected in riparian forest plots along headwater streams within two experimental forests in the northeast US. The USFS Forest Vegetation Simulator was used to simulate growth and yield and schedule management activities over 20-year cutting cycles. Timber volumes and registry offset credits along with their market values were calculated for the respective scenarios and a Net Present Value (NPV) and Equal Annual Equivalent (EAE) analysis was performed under assumptions of constant prices and costs. The initial aboveground carbon stocks at both locations were 32% and 140% higher than the average value for their assessment areas. Having above-average carbon stocks and basal areas between 30 and 33 m2/ha, all scenarios returned positive NPVs and EAEs. The hardwood riparian forest had a higher NPV and EAE by not participating in the carbon markets and pursuing partial harvesting as per BMP guidelines (Scenario II) at lower discount rates but had higher NPVs and EAEs under carbon markets at higher discount rates (Scenario I and III). The conifer/mixed species riparian forest provided greater positive net revenue flows by participating in the carbon markets either in a no harvesting scenario or under partial harvesting as per guidelines in the Protocol (Scenarios I and III). Our results indicate that a protocol for compensating landowners with large forest holdings for riparian carbon offsets provides an opportunity to generate positive net revenues in scenarios in which state BMP guidelines may restrict harvesting in RMZs. Given the high density of ecologically critical headwater streams in the Northeast and potential RMZ restrictions, the carbon offset option provides landowners with the opportunity to remain economically viable.