International Water Management Research Articles

Sustainable Water Management in Urban Areas through Smart Water Circulation Systems

Abstract Urbanization is a significant global trend that profoundly impacts water security. By mid-century, a large majority of the global population is expected to reside in urban areas, intensifying challenges related to water scarcity. The International Water Management Institute forecasts that most of the world’s population encounters physical and economic water shortages. In response to these challenges, the potential of recycled water is increasingly being recognized, with global capacity for water reuse projected to rise significantly over the coming years. Implementing smart water circulation systems in urban environments is essential for maintaining water balance and enhancing water use efficiency. This approach involves the integration of diverse recycling technologies with smart water networks, allowing for real-time monitoring and optimization of water resources. Initial applications of these systems in parks and other urban spaces provide valuable opportunities for testing and evaluation. The present study aims to develop a comprehensive concept for smart water circulation systems by analyzing various water treatment technologies, assessing their practical applications in urban settings, and creating frameworks for effective implementation. Through empirical analysis and case studies, this research offers practical insights for policymakers and urban planners to address the pressing challenges of water scarcity, thereby contributing to sustainable water use and improved water security in urban areas.

A proposal for an academy to deliver capacity building in agricultural water management with particular reference to irrigation

AbstractThe paper proposes a capacity‐building programme (CBP) on water for food/agricultural water management in sub‐Saharan Africa contained within an academy on the water–energy–food (WEF) nexus. The paper is informed by a study funded by the International Water Management Institute and supported by the Water Research Commission of South Africa. It also reports on a stakeholder consultation workshop on 26 April 2023 in Pretoria, South Africa. It identifies key components of capacity‐building design and delivery, including six teaching and learning pathways. These are managed ad hoc self‐directed learning; continuing professional development; short‐course training; vocational college training; part‐time online postgraduate training; and full‐time in‐person postgraduate training. The accompanying budget analysis is speculative based on the size of the student cohorts per year for each of the six CBP pathways. The total budget of the academy is estimated at approximately US$60 million for a 10‐year programme training 2,800 individuals. This works out at an average per‐student cost of US$21,600. One question, debated at the stakeholder workshop but unresolved, was the emphasis on irrigation versus the agricultural water management continuum including rainfed agriculture.

Comparative performance assessment of pilot irrigation schemes in Uganda

Irrigation schemes across sub-Saharan Africa are constructed with the intention of increasing agricultural production to increase food security, reduce poverty and improve economic growth. However, most of these schemes are not performing as expected. This study therefore, diagnosed performance gaps in the pilot irrigation schemes of Mubuku and Doho in Uganda and analysed sustainable improvement options. Data was collected through systematic review of literature and scheme data, direct measurements at the schemes, field surveys, inspections, and key informant interviews. For each scheme, data for climate, irrigation, flow measurements, crop yields and farm gate prices were collected. Comparative indicators of agricultural output, water supply, financial and physical sustainability were used to assess scheme performance using standard approaches by International Water Management Institute (IWMI). The findings showed that the schemes were not performing optimally with crop yields being far below the attainable potential. The major contributing factors to the low performance were low water use efficiency and low agricultural output. Poor flow control, poor water distribution, and poor on-farm water application contributed to low water use efficiency. Low agricultural production was attributed to poor crop yields resulting from poor agronomic practices, poor irrigation scheduling and low produce prices. The financial self-sufficiency indicator pointed to farmers’ inability to operate and maintain irrigation schemes effectively. Improving the irrigation schemes performance requires a multidisciplinary approach targeting the improvement water use efficiency and agricultural output.

Large-Scale Hydrological Models and Transboundary River Basins

Large-scale hydrological modeling is an emerging approach in river hydrology, especially in regions with limited available data. This research focuses on evaluating the performance of two well-known large-scale hydrological models, namely E-HYPE and LISFLOOD, for the five transboundary rivers of Greece. For this purpose, discharge time series at the rivers’ outlets from both models are compared with observed datasets wherever possible. The comparison is conducted using well-established statistical measures, namely, coefficient of determination, Percent Bias, Nash–Sutcliffe Efficiency, Root-Mean-Square Error, and Kling–Gupta Efficiency. Subsequently, the hydrological models’ time series are bias corrected through scaling factor, linear regression, delta change, and quantile mapping methods, respectively. The outputs are then re-evaluated against observations using the same statistical measures. The results demonstrate that neither of the large-scale hydrological models consistently outperformed the other, as one model performed better in some of the basins while the other excelled in the remaining cases. The bias-correction process identifies linear regression and quantile mapping as the most suitable methods for the case study basins. Additionally, the research assesses the influence of upstream waters on the rivers’ water budget. The research highlights the significance of large-scale models in transboundary hydrology, presents a methodological approach for their applicability in any river basin on a global scale, and underscores the usefulness of the outputs in cooperative management of international waters.

Challenges to Water Resource Management: The Role of Economic and Modeling Approaches

The field of water management is continually changing. Water has been subject to external shocks in the form of climate change and globalization. Water management analysis is subject to disciplinary developments and inter-disciplinary interactions. Are these developments well-documented in the literature? Initial observations in the interdisciplinary literature suggest that results are fragmented, implying that a state-of-the-art review is needed. This paper aims to close such a gap by reviewing recent developments in water economics that address increasing perceptions of water scarcity by looking first at changes in the supply and quality of water and then at the impacts of climate change on water supply extremes. Among responses to such challenges, this paper identifies changes to water use patterns by including and co-managing water from different sources, including surface and groundwater, reclaimed wastewater, and desalinated water. Technological advancements are also among the resources that address water challenges. Water challenges are also reflected in the management of internationally shared water. A recent surge in scientific work identified international treaties as a significant contributor to international water management. This paper reviews recently employed economic approaches, such as experimental economics, game theory, institutional economics, and valuation methods. And, finally, it explores modeling approaches, including hydro-economic and computable general equilibrium models, that are being used to deal with water challenges.

Agricultural Water Productivity Using Weighted Aggregated Sum Product Assessment Method

Water productivity is a unit of agricultural production for water decrease in the size, of crops, and trees, for livestock and fish can be evaluated. Agriculture water productivity per hectare tons of water or kg consumed kg of water the yield is consumed following) yields on the unit size of the water physical productivity disclosure of crop yields total or net present the yield period will change by value water losses or economic productivity incomplete or excluded water consumption with reference volume ( a bank water ) per unit block. Water productivity ‘ per unit crop production ’ will be used and defined as a water's number. Agricultural production systems with water the idea that productivity is ‘ the same more food with water bodies focusing on manufacturing ’ or with ‘ low water bodies production of the same amount of food does. Initially, irrigation performance of methods irrigation ability to describe or water use capacity was used. In terms of agriculture, ‘ water use capacity ’ will produce a plant as the quantity of organic matter is defined. This is, however, the terms used ‘ water use capacity ’ and ‘ performance ’ will not follow the classical concept of it, this is for input and output uses the same units. Therefore, the international water management company ( iwmi ) ‘ water use capacity ’ to ‘ water productivity ’ until the change of nomenclature is proposed. Analysis purpose, size, and domain step water productivity are many you can define more ways. one unit of water revenue equals one unit of water productivity (wp). More food, more money, a better standard of living, and improved ecosystem services result from increased water productivity. One unit of water revenue equals one unit of water productivity (wp). More food, more money, a better standard of living, and improved ecosystem services result from increased water productivity. It aims to produce contains. Crop, livestock, and water of fisheries in the domains of productivity to improve the size of the basin there is considerable opportunity. This will be used to achieve water harvesting in procedures, sub-watering, lack irrigation, precision techniques for irrigation, and practices for protecting soil and water are included. Soil fertility, pest, and disease management, and improved crop selection getting into markets from improvements like such by the interactive effects obtained water management impacts water directly with productivity related procedures. Benefits of using the Waspas technique weighted sum model (WSM) and weighted product model (WPM). Accuracy of ranking waspas alternatives is increased by integrating wsm and wpm. Wasps are an optimal at this point in the calculation of the additive parameter, which will be discussed in more depth later. The finest solution is the waspas method of analysis, which is outstanding. The long-range solution identifies a better answer than the short distance and negative-best, but a comparison of these distances is not thought to be important. Alternative is Kilograms per cubic meter, Dollars per cubic meter, Protein grams per cubic meter, Calories per cubic meter. Evaluation preference is Cereal Wheat ($0.2 per kilogram), Rice ($0.31 per kilogram), Maize ($0.11 per kilogram), Legumes Lentils ($0.3 per kilogram), Fava beans ($0.3 per kilogram). From the result it is seen that Rice ($0.31 per kilogram) is got the first rank where as is the Fava beans ($0.3 per kilogram) is having the lowest rank. .Rice ($0.31 per kilogram) is ranked first and Fava beans ($0.3 per kilogram) are ranked lowest.

Transboundary water management in Kyrgyzstan: International law aspects

This article explores the intricate dynamics of international water management, focusing on Kyrgyzstan's pivotal role in Central Asia's water resource distribution. It begins by highlighting global water scarcity issues and emphasizes the growing importance of international water law and liability for transboundary harm. Employing a range of scientific methodologies, the study delves into historical contexts, including Soviet-era water management initiatives and subsequent challenges post-dissolution. It elucidates the establishment of river basin organizations and the complexities of inter-state agreements and disagreements. The discussion section offers diverse perspectives on key issues such as equitable resource allocation and infrastructure maintenance costs, drawing from expert opinions and scholarly insights. Recent positive developments in interstate relations, particularly between Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan, regarding water resource management agreements are highlighted. In conclusion, the article advocates for bilateral agreements and regional cooperation to address water-related conflicts, proposing the potential creation of a supranational organization akin to the European Coal and Steel Community. Such initiatives aim to ensure equitable and sustainable water resource management while fostering economic cooperation in the region.

Evaluation of Water Balance and Water Use Efficiency with the Development of Water-Saving Irrigation in the Yanqi Basin Irrigation District of China

Irrigation water is the main type of water consumption in the Yanqi Basin irrigation district of Xinjiang, which is an oasis-type irrigation district in the arid region of Northwest China. With the continuous expansion of cultivated areas, there is an increasing demand for irrigation water, resulting in an irrigation efficiency paradox and the phenomenon of “the more water-saving, the more water-scarce”. In this study, the water balance method and the improved IWMI (International Water Management Institute) water balance method were used with remote sensing and statistical data from 1980 to 2020 to analyze the changes in the irrigation water supply, consumption, and loss for improvement in irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE) in the Yanqi Basin. The results showed that there was an upward trend in the cultivated land area in the irrigation district of Yanqi Basin, as monitored with remote sensing from 1980 to 2020, and the values from the remote sensing data were higher than those from the yearbooks. According to the remote sensing data, the arable land area in the irrigation district increased from 1672 km2 in 1980 to 2494 km2 in 2020, thus showing a trend of expansion. The traditional water use efficiency in the irrigation district showed an increasing trend. The lowest value for the field water-use coefficient was 0.70 in 1998, and it exceeded to 0.81 from 2009 to 2020. The canal water-use coefficient was as low as 0.50 in 1998 and increased from 0.54 in 2009 to 0.82 in 2020. The irrigation water-use coefficient increased from 0.35 in 1998 to 0.68 in 2020, with a general upward trend. In this study, the water consumption ratio indicator DFg (depleted fraction), determined using the improved water balance method, increased from 0.8390 in 1980 to 0.8562 in 2020, although it showed an overall decreasing trend, and the average was 0.8436. Cultivated land’s actual irrigation water consumption per unit area reached the highest value of 8.41 × 106 m3/hm2/a in 2011 and the minimum value of 4.01 × 106 m3/hm2/a in 2020, and from 1980 to 2020 it showed a decreasing trend, while the total water diversion showed an increasing trend due to the continuous expansion of arable land. From 1980 to 2020, water diversion into the irrigation district changed from 1.214 km3 to 1.000 km3, and it reached a maximum of 1.593 km3 in 2000; water diversion into the irrigation district showed an overall upward trend. The positive impact of the post-2000 water conservation phase with the adaptation of water-saving irrigation technology was clear, as the findings showed an increase in IWUE in the Yanqi Basin irrigation district. These results provide a theoretical basis for breaking the paradox of irrigation efficiency, which can be used in the water resource management of irrigation districts.

Urgent call for protection and use of transboundary watercourses. Some legal reflections

AbstractThe use of transboundary water resources has received special international attention in recent years. Although riparian countries recognize the benefits of cross‐border rivers and enter into agreements with countries sharing the transboundary rivers by means of legal rules, treaties, and principles, they have done excessive riverine exploitation activities to maximize their socio‐economic benefits, causing the imbalance in the ecosystems and peace. This study aims to conduct a secondary analysis of primary qualitative data to research the common legal frameworks on international water law such as Helsinki Rules, UN Watercourses Conventions, and UNECE Water Convention, together with a case study on the Mekong River Agreement. Bilateral, multilateral, international treaties and principles are currently not enforceable enough to compel riparian countries strictly to comply with these legal rules and principles on equitable and sustainable water coordination and development. Besides, there are still internal conflicts among the upper and lower riparian countries over the equitable and reasonable use of transboundary river watercourses due to lack of punitive sanctions. There is an urgent need to establish a specialized international water management commission designated by all nations with the utmost power to regulate human‐related activities concerning transboundary watercourses to govern equitable and sustainable management and development of the transboundary water use. Besides, current international law principles have to be revised to fill the gap of disagreement and potential conflicts between upstream, middle stream and downstream countries.

A data‐oriented strategy to support water resource managers and researchers

AbstractGiven the wide diversity of data services provided to national water management agencies, the Group on Earth Observations (GEO) in collaboration with the Committee on Earth Observation Satellites (CEOS) developed the approach described in the report, Implementing the GEOSS Water Strategy—From Observations to Decisions to develop more coherent and equitable data services for water management through the use of Earth observations. Among other water resource issues, it recognized the need to enhance data‐enriched water management services to support decision making related to drought monitoring, flood warning, tracking and improving sustainable development and monitoring and ameliorating the impacts of climate change. Needs associated with the Strategy's four themes: improved data acquisition for essential water variables, research and product development, interoperability and coordination, and capacity development and decision support, are reviewed. Responses to the recommendations have been undertaken by GEO, led by its Global Water Sustainability (GEOGloWS) initiative which includes NASA contributions, CEOS, and the Global Terrestrial Network for Hydrology (GTN‐H). Progress on the themes is reviewed and benefits of these developments for international and US water management are identified. The commentary concludes with a summary of what has been achieved, what remains to be done, and the priority focus areas for implementation in the final year of the Strategy.

Scrutinizing the Hydrological Responses of Chennai, India Using Coupled SWAT-FEM Model under Land Use Land Cover and Climate Change Scenarios

This study implemented a coupled SWAT-FEM simulation model to evaluate the impacts of land use land cover and climate change scenarios (LCS) on the water resources of river catchments in Chennai, India. The land use land cover data were obtained by merging the source data from National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) and International Water Management Institute (IWMI). Climate change simulations were obtained from four global climate models (GCM), including GFDL Baseline Scenario (1981–2000), GFDL A1B Scenario (2081–2100), CCSM4 Baseline Scenario (1986–2005), and CCSM4 A1B Scenario (2081–2100). The LCS predicted temperature increases of 2.32 °C and 1.74 °C for GFDL and CCSM4, respectively, by the end of the century. The water use predictions suggested increases above 20% in the utilization of water by 2100, inferring the noticeable dynamics of inter-annual as well as inter-month variability in water resources in the river basins of Chennai soon. The study is novel through its implementation of a coupled modeling approach to improve the practicality of the SWAT-FEM model and to deliver useful projections of land and climate change impacts on hydrological responses. The results provide useful insights into how the variability in climate conditions alters the spatiotemporal water responses in catchment scales.

A Bibliometric Analysis of Groundwater Access and Its Management: Making the Invisible Visible

The sustainable management of groundwater resources is required to avoid a water crisis. The current study focused on a bibliometric analysis of groundwater access and management to assess research progress. The study was based on data from Dimensions.ai generated using the search terms “Groundwater”, “access”, and “management” for the period from 1985 to 2022. A total of 534 documents were identified as relevant and retrieved in CSV format. The intellectual structure of the retrieved data was visualized and analyzed using VoS viewer software (version 1.6.18). The analysis showed that the field of earth sciences had the highest number of publications on groundwater access and management (358), followed by the environmental sciences (155). Most of the articles (267) were about Sustainable Development Goal 6, which focuses on ensuring access to clean water and sanitation. The co-authorship analysis for the countries indicated that the United States has the most impact and research, and all other countries have established clusters around it. The citation analysis of the organizations showed that the International Water Management Institute, Charles Sturt University, and Wageningen University and Research were the top three organizations in terms of total citations (825, 611, and 584, respectively), indicating the most effect. The citation analysis for the sources indicated that the “Water” journal had a greater impact on readers with respect to groundwater research. Numerous parties are involved in the groundwater investigation; hence, a broad multidisciplinary approach is required. Therefore, researchers should work together rather than alone to address the problem of sustainable groundwater management.

Some Legal Controversies on Equitable and Sustainable Utilization of Transboundary Water Resources in Practice (by Example of the Mekong River)

The use of transboundary water resources has gained internationally special attention for the past time. Although riparian countries recognize the benefits of cross-border rivers and enter into an agreement with countries sharing the transboundary rivers by legal rules, treaties and principles, they have done excessively riverine exploitation activities to maximize their socio-economic benefits causing the imbalance of the ecosystems and peace. International treaties, bilateral and multilateral basin, and principles are currently not enforceable enough to compel riparian countries strictly to comply with these legal rules and principles on the equitable and sustainable water coordination and development. Besides, there still exists internal conflicts among the upper and lower riparian countries on the use of transboundary river watercourses due to defective sanctions of transboundary water use. There is an urgent need to establish a specialized international water management commission designated by all nations with the utmost power to regulate human related activities concerning transboundary watercourses to govern equitable and sustainable management and development. Besides, current international law principles have to be revised to bridge the gap of disagreement and potential conflicts between the lower and upper riparian States.

Closing the gap between present and future through education: MINE-EMI project

This study aims to discuss the need for a new postgraduate program intending to fill the gap between the curriculum of the current postgraduate programs and the contemporary requirements of the maritime sector regarding management, transport operations and logistics. It is the duty of the schools to train and educate the workforce of the future; therefore, the contents of the courses should constantly be reviewed and tackled with the new developments in science and society. New programs with new courses or contents to meet the educational demands of the sector and to develop skills and competencies to raise awareness on emerging maritime issues should be developed with the ultimate goal of promoting sustainable management of the maritime sector. To determine the courses of these programs and their contents, a survey that was prepared in the frame of the MINE-EMI Project* was used. The survey which was distributed to the stakeholders in 5 different countries was responded to by 224 stakeholders in the maritime sector. In addition, online and face-to-face interviews were made with them. The results showed that the contents of the present postgraduate programs should be modified to cover the newly emerging issues such as environment protection, technology-related issues, management of international waters, continuous professional development and inclusion of generation Z in the maritime industry. To make the maritime sector keep pace with the latest developments and to graduate students with up-to-date knowledge MET (Maritime Education and Training) institutions should be proactive and continuously adjust their programs to the needs of the sector in the future and prepare their students to meet the requirements of the future.

Prospects and Challenges of Water Management Stakeholders in the Rural Communities of the Noun Division, West Region, Cameroon

Seven years after the formulation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), uncertainty looms on whether the 2030 targets would be achieved. In the Noun Division of Cameroon diverse stakeholders have made substantial efforts to meet the 2030 SDG on the provision of portable water to the rural communities. Despite these laudable efforts, access to portable water remains a topical issue in the Division. The focus of this study was to assess the prospects and challenges of water management stakeholders in the provision of portable water to the rural communities of the Noun Division. In order to meet this objective, a total of 400 questionnaires were randomly administered to household heads in rural councils with the help of traditional authorities. International, national, regional and local stakeholders involved in the management of water resources were interviewed. The “17 in 1” and “iQ. BAC” water test kits were respectively used to analyse the chemical properties of drinking water sources in situ and faecal content within 48 hours. Descriptive and inferential statistical techniques were used to analyse quantitative data while content and narrative analysis were used for qualitative data. Findings revealed that local, national and international portable water management stakeholders prioritised the improvement of portable water sources over other parameters. Whereas the proportion of people who depended on unimproved water sources reduced from 79.92% in 2015 to 57.52% in 2022, that with mean round trip time of over 30 minutes rather increased from 49.62% to 50.38%. Moreover, 50% of the interviewee indicated that portable water is expensive in the area, suggesting why 42.3% of the population still rely on streams today. Five sampled streams analysed with the iQ. BAC test kit tested positive for total coliform while confirmatory laboratory analysis revealed E. coli concentration of 11-100MPN/100ml in Njimom which according to WHO is synonymous to medium risk. The “17 in 1” test kit revealed abnormal concentration of lead (0.03-0.05 ppm) and sulphate (400-800 ppm) mainly in streams and boreholes. PCA identified five main components that account for 72.71% variance in the hydrochemistry of drinking water sources. Though, none of the four scenarios developed revealed complete access to improve drinking water in rural areas of the Noun Division by 2030, Njimom and Foumbot showed remarkable progress under the most probable scenario (50% increase in current effort) considered to be the most realistic. Water governance stakeholders should quadruple their current efforts in improving portable water sources and adopt a holistic approach that engulfs water quality improvement if they wish to make significant progress on SDG 6.1.

Hydropolitics in the Black Sea: From Political Competition to Environmental Cooperation?

Many major rivers discharge into the Black Sea and bring major nutrient pollution, leading to rapid plant growth and eutrophication impacts in the ecosystem. Yet, the Black Sea cannot replace the lost oxygen during this process due to its natural conditions, such as low salinity, low density, very limited connection to larger seas and oceans, and low vertical and horizontal circulation. This resulted in about 90% of the sea to have anaerobic conditions and caused serious consequences on almost every aspect of life for basin countries. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the riparian countries that recharge the sea began cooperating to address the pollution problem despite numerous international conflicts they had had with each other. Some progress has been made so far, but tense diplomatic relations persist. Little improvement of international relations has taken place in the region due to environmental cooperation. This study seeks, based on a range of interviews with stakeholders and archival research, to understand how this environmental cooperation initiated and survived despite the diplomatic impasse. Moreover, it seeks ways to improve the effectiveness of the cooperation and translate this cooperation to improvement of the international relations among the riparians. As part of the solution, this study suggests giving more authority to the local level institutions handling day-to-day management of the Black Sea. This research is of special interest for government workers employed at units that handle international water management, policymakers focusing on environmental policies, and members of academia conducting relevant research.

Intercomparison of Estimates of Reference Evapotranspiration of Surat Region of Gujarat, India

Evapotranspiration is a vital parameter for irrigation planning and management, and for hydrological and climatological studies. This can be estimated by using Blaney-Criddle (BC), Thornthwaite (TW), Hargreaves (HG) and Penman-Monteith (PM) methods. Out of these methods, BC and TW are known as temperature based whereas HG is radiation based and PM is based on Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) report on crop water requirements. This paper illustrates a study on comparison on estimates of reference evapotranspiration (ETo) obtained from temperature, radiation and FAO based methods for Surat region. The meteorological data such as air temperature, relative humidity and sunshine hours observed at Surat region for the period 2001 to 2016 is used. In addition, the wind speed and solar radiation data is downloaded from the International Water Management Institute website and used in estimation of ETo using PM. The performance of the methods used in estimation of ETo is evaluated through regression analysis by developing a linear regression between the observed and estimated values of ETo using BC, TW and HG, and FAO based PM. The results of linear regression analysis indicated that there is a good line of agreement between the observed and estimated ETo using PM with CC of 0.968 when compared with those values of BC, TW and HG. The study show that the PM is better suited amongst four methods applied in estimating the ETo for Surat region, Gujarat.

4. Global Environment Facility (GEF)

The GEF is a premier international financial mechanism working for global environment problems and issues since 1992. It was established for providing grants, funds, and concessional finance to member states for their efforts towards environment protection and sustainable development. The finance and facility are managed by the board of directors through the GEF Council and by the trustee (World Bank). Its organizational structure consists of the GEF Assembly, the GEF Council, the Least Developed Countries Fund/Special Climate Change Fund (LDCF/SCCF) Council, the Scientific and Technical Advisory Penal (STAP), the Independent Evaluation Office (IEO), and the Secretariat at Washington, United States (<https://www.thegef.org/about/organization.html>). It is a financial mechanism for several international environmental conventions, such as the United Nations (UN) Convention to Combat Desertification in Those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa, the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, and the Minamata Convention on Mercury. It also provides funds and facilities to several projects in the areas of international water and sustainable forest management under the UN 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea, the UN Forum on Forest Management, and the Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment (<https://www.thegef.org/about/funding.html>).

Spatial analysis of blue and green water footprints of agricultural crop patterns: Turkey

The agricultural sector is responsible for around 85% of global freshwater consumption. Spatial variations of the water footprint (WF) of agricultural products can be employed to mitigate regional and global problems concerning water scarcity. In this study, the agricultural WF of Turkey at administrative boundary level based on a diverse crop pattern was analysed. The total, per capita and per land area blue and green WFs and virtual water contents (VWCs) of 81 agricultural products were calculated for administrative boundaries. Accordingly, the national WF of agricultural production was estimated to be 107 × 109 m3, of which 56% is blue water. Cereals constitute the largest share of the national WF (57%), mostly due to the production of wheat, barley and maize. Detailed maps and quantifications of VWCs and total, per capita and per land area WFs of various crops are illustrated in this paper. To the authors’ knowledge, this study is the most comprehensive work carried out in the study area to date, with a wide range of crop patterns and administrative boundaries taken into account. This work is expected to contribute to national and international water management studies by proposing and discussing the water intensity of agricultural products at high spatial resolution.

The impacts of community-based water development projects on rural poverty among small-holder farmers: Evidence from the Ewaso Ng’iro North Catchment Area, Kenya

The main challenge with respect to water in the rural setting, lies in access, control and management. Collective action has been taken up following the International Water Management (IWM) princip...