Fruit Fly Management Research Articles

Review of entomopathogenic fungi and nematodes as biological control agents of tephritid fruit flies: current status and a future vision

AbstractSeveral fruit fly species (Diptera: Tephritidae) are invasive pests that damage the quality of fruits in horticultural crops and cause significant value losses worldwide. Management of fruit flies mainly depends on conventional insecticides. Unfortunately, the application of synthetic insecticides has caused environmental pollution, risks for humans and animals, and development of resistance. Furthermore, controlling fruit flies by applying synthetic insecticides is challenging because fruit containing third instars often fall from the tree – subsequently the larvae leave the decaying fruits and pupate in the soil. Consequently, both larvae and pupae are protected from surface‐applied insecticides in fruits and soil. So, there is a pressing need for more eco‐friendly and selective control measures with new modes of action. Among such measures are entomopathogenic fungi (EPFs) and nematodes (EPNs). I gathered knowledge on past and present research about EPFs and EPNs as biocontrol agents against fruit flies to investigate approaches that may improve their capacities. I also highlighted several recommendations that may help future field studies on the suppression of fruit fly populations by EPFs and EPNs.

Assessment of Fruit Fly Infestation on Melon Manis Terengganu (Cucumis melo var. inodorus) at Different Fruit Ripening Stages

Cucumis melo var inodorus or known as Melon Manis Terengganu (MMT) is a new variety of rockmelon and has been developed and grown exclusively in Terengganu since 2015. However, pest infestations such as fruit flies have reduced melon production yields, and research on fruit flies is still poorly studied in this new variety. Therefore, this study was aimed to identify the fruit fly’s species infested MMT as well as to determine the infestation rate of fruit flies on MMT at different ripening stages. The infested MMT fruits were randomly collected for three consecutive weeks prior to harvest and each week was represented as unripe stage (Week 1), ripe stage (Week 2) and fully-ripe stage (Week 3). Each week, 10 fruit samples were brought to the laboratory and weighed individually before being placed in plastic containers. The fruits were reared until all larvae transformed into pupae for determination of infestation rates and emergence of adult fruit flies for species identification. A total of 232 of fruit flies adults emerged from 30 MMT fruit samples collected and all the flies were identified as Zeugodacus cucurbitae (previously known as Bactrocera cucurbitae). Unripe stage fruits recorded the highest infestation rate of fruit flies at 28.24 ± 18.58 pupae/kg and followed by ripe stage at 24.47 ± 8.17 pupae/kg. Whilst the fully-ripe stage had the lowest infestation rate of flies at 13.5 ± 5.07 pupae/kg. However, no significant difference (P>0.05) of infestation rate was recorded among the different fruit stages. This study contributes new information on the fruit fly’s species that attack MMT and its infestation rate. Hence, these findings are expected to help better management of MMT fruit flies in the future.

Awareness and Attitude towards Mango Infesting Fruit Flies and Adoption of an IPM Strategy: A Panel Data Analysis in Elgeyo Marakwet, Kenya

This study aimed at understanding farmers’ awareness and attitude towards mango infesting fruit flies, the adoption of an IPM strategy, and the determinants of farmers’ knowledge and perceptions on fruit fly infestation and management. We utilized panel data collected from 608 mango farmers in Elgeyo Marakwet County, Kenya. Descriptive results show that eighty four percent of farmers reported high damage caused by fruit flies. The most common identified fruit fly symptoms were infected fruits that contain maggots and fruits falling off the plant prematurely. Fruit fly traps and orchard sanitation by feeding infested fruits to animals and burying infected mangoes were well-known and adopted IPM strategies among the farmers. The principal component analysis (PCA) was employed to develop the knowledge and perception index that was subsequently used in multiple regression analysis. The regression estimates indicate that farmers’ awareness and attitude towards fruit fly infestation and management is positively associated with gender of the household head, training on IPM, contact with an extension officer, membership to a mango cooperative, and experience of pesticide intoxication, while age of the household head and mango income negatively influenced farmers’ awareness and attitude on fruit fly infestation and management. We emphasize on the role of rural institutions and associations in enhancing farmers’ knowledge and perceptions on fruit fly infestation and management through improved product-specific training, access to farmer cooperatives and extension services on non-pesticide methods of suppressing fruit flies. Keywords: Mango fruit fly; Integrated pest management; Knowledge and perceptions; Principal component analysis DOI: 10.7176/JESD/13-18-01 Publication date: September 30 th 2022

Analysis of components in male annihilation blocks used to manage Queensland fruit fly Bactrocera tryoni (Froggatt)

The male annihilation technique (MAT) is used throughout the world to assist in the management and eradication of fruit flies. In Australia, often MAT was deployed using particle board blocks (50 × 50 mm) and was used in southern New South Wales to manage Queensland fruit fly Bactrocera tryoni. We sampled 120 MAT blocks over two years which were newly manufactured, new and stored (for later use), exposed for a four or twelve months period and analysed them for the effects of environmental exposure on chemical contents and the weight of blocks. Chemicals present in the blocks were malathion (toxicant), cuelure (male lure) and raspberry ketone (male lure). Total weight of the blocks and the weight of the chemicals from the block's central core and edge components were recorded separately. We found that the storage of newly manufactured blocks did not prevent chemical degradation; cuelure and malathion contents were reduced by 25% and 16%, respectively, in a stored block when compared to a new block. Most changes in the chemical contents of the blocks occurred in the first four months of field deployment, with 56% and 35% reduction analysed in cuelure and malathion contents, respectively. Loss in chemical contents and weight of blocks continued with long-term exposure of blocks from four to twelve months. Edges were found to degrade more as compared to the central core of the used blocks. Managers need to be aware of chemical degradation patterns if particle board is to be used in future MAT programs.

Bioefficacy of Different Plant Extracts Against Melon Fruit Fly Zeugodacus cucurbitae (Coquillet) in Zucchini at Bharatpur, Nepal

The management of fruit fly is simply through chemicals, which have hazardous impact on human health and environment. So, the present study on "Bioefficacy of different plant extracts agains fruit fly in zucchini" was carried out at Bharatpur-11, Chitwan, Nepal from February 13 to May 18, 2020. The experiment was laid in Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) consisting four replications and five different treatments namely: 1) Neem leaf extracts, 2) Parthenium leaf extracts, 3) Garlic clove extracts, 4) Chilli fruit extracts and 5) Untreated control. All treatments were applied 40 days after transplanting and repeated 3 times at 10 days interval. For treatments, the extracts from each botanical were diluted with water in 1:5 ratio then applied with the help of hand sprayer. Data were taken after 3rd, 6th and 9th days of each treatment application. The result showed that Neem leaf extracts reduced adult fruit fly population by 64% over control. This was followed by parthenium leaf extracts (49.6%), garlic clove extracts (43.0%) and chilli fruit extracts (37.0%), respectively. Similarly, minimum flower drop (22.3%) and fruit damage (19.5%) were also observed on neem leaf extract treated plots as compared to all other treatments. The neem leaf extract also give highest marketable yield (15.4 mt/ha). For monitoring of fruit fly population, cue lure trap were installed at corner of the field, which show the maximum number of fruit flies (n = 41) was recorded at an average temperature of about 26.9 °C. During our research, it was found that fruit fly preferred more young and immature zucchini fruits as compared to mature one. The results of this experiment revealed that botanicals could be used as option of synthetic pesticides for the management of melon fruit flies that would render health benefit to human beings and friendly to environment. Among all botanicals neem leaf extracts performed best with regards to all parameters.

Farmer's Perception of Fruit Fly Bactrocera spp. in Mandarin Orange and their Management in Sankhuwasabha District of Nepal

The study was conducted from October to December, 2020 to evaluate farmers' understanding of loss incurred by Bactrocera spp. on mandarin orange and practices adopted by farmers for their management. Eighty households of mandarin orange growers and 15 agro-vets were purposively selected and information was collected using a semi structured questionnaire. The findings indicated severe infestation of fruit fly in mandarin with 53% of the farmers having low (>15%), 36% having medium (15-30%) and 11% having high (>30%) level of fruit damage in their orchards. The survey identified several management practices like collection and destruction of fallen fruits, pruning, use of traps and chemical pesticides in controlling fruit fly. About two-third (61.25%) of the respondents used chemicals and 15% of the farmers collected and destroyed affected fallen fruits. Some farmers also practiced pruning in the study area for the control of fruit fly. The use of traps was a rarity and its use was limited to only 10% of the total respondents. Since farmers were not much aware of the impact, life cycle and different species of fruit fly, lacked adequate training, support, and supervision, effective management of fruit fly was not possible and resulted in a much greater damage in mandarin fruit.

Potential biological control agents of Zeugodacus cucurbitae (Coquillett): A review

AbstractZeugodacus cucurbitae (Coquillett) (Diptera: Tephritidae) is a serious agro‐economic pest of cucurbits around the world. Management of tephritid fruit flies is till date mainly dependent on the use of chemical pesticides. In a rising concern about environment quality and rapid development of resistance in insect pests, biological control of insect pests is being contemplated, and in response, research approaches are constantly evolving. Various naturally occurring control agents of melon fruit fly such as parasitoids, bacteria, fungi and nematodes have potential in the management of Z. cucurbitae. Many parasitoids including Psyttalia fletcheri, Fopius arisanus, Dirhinus giffardii and Spalangia endius are known to attack various life stages of Z. cucurbitae. Although parasitoids are being principally exploited for control of Z. cucurbitae, various other entomopathogens such as fungi (Beauveria bassiana, Paecilomyces fumosoroseus, Metarhizium anisopliae), bacteria (Bacillus thuringiensis), nematodes (Heterorhabditis indica, Steinernema feltiae) and microbial toxins/products (spinosad, avermectin) are being investigated or used for biological control. The development of farming methodologies with greater credence on ecosystem services such as biological control of Z. cucurbitae will increase sustainability of agroecosystems. This review provides a concise compilation of these biological control agents along with their effectiveness and will help researchers in designing various integrated pest management strategies against Z. cucurbitae that involve biological control agents.

Management of Fruit Flies in Guava Through Male Annihilation Technique

Study on the management of fruit flies through male annihilation was undertaken on guava in five farmers’ orchards. Three orchards were installed with methyl eugenol traps @ 10, 20 and 40 traps/ ha. One orchard with 25 methyl eugenol traps/ ha as per the recommended package of practices (POP) of TNAU and without any trap was used as control. Significantly maximum catch of 178.83 males/ trap/ fortnight was caught with 40 traps, followed by the one with TNAU POP traps (100.25/ trap/ fortnight). The least fruit damage was (6.14%) in orchard where 40 traps were placed. TNAU POP traps placed orchard revealed the least fruit damage (10.71%).

Combined application of entomopathogenic nematodes and fungi against fruit flies, Bactrocera zonata and B. dorsalis (Diptera: Tephritidae): laboratory cups to field study.

The peach fruit fly, Bactrocera zonata, and the Oriental fruit fly, B.dorsalis (Diptera: Tephritidae), are economically important fruit fly species in various regions of the world. We evaluated the effects of separate and combined applications of the entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) Beauveria bassiana (WG-18) and Metarhizium anisopliae (WG-02), and the entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) Heterorhabditis bacteriophora (VS strain) and Steinernema carpocapsae (ALL strain) against larvae, pupae and pharate adults, of B.zonata and B.dorsalis under laboratory, glasshouse and field cage conditions. Combined applications of EPF and EPNs produced greater mortality than individual treatments under all conditions. Against both species, the combination of B. bassiana and H.bacteriophora consistently exerted strong effects that were similar to the combined application of B.bassiana and S.carpocapsae whereas M.anisopliae applied with S.carpocapsae was least effective in all combinations. In a laboratory bioassay, synergistic interactions were detected between B.bassiana and H.bacteriophora applied against larvae and pharate adults of both fly species, between B.bassiana and S.carpocapsae against larvae of both species and pharate adults of B.zonata, and between M.anisopliae and H.bacteriophora against B.zonata larvae. Other combined treatments resulted in additive effects, especially against fly pupae. In a potted soil bioassay, there were only additive interactions in all combinations against different stages of both flies. The 3rd instar of both flies was more susceptible than pharate adult and pupal stages. Additive interactions between EPNs and EPF were detected in the glasshouse against 3rd instars and pupae, and under field conditions against 3rd instars of both fly species. These results indicate how particular combinations of entomopathogenic fungi and nematodes could be deployed in integrated pest management of tephritid fruit flies in orchard agro-ecosystems. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

A comprehensive phylogeny helps clarify the evolutionary history of host breadth and lure response in the Australian Dacini fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae)

The tribe Dacini (Diptera: Tephritidae) contains over 930 recognised species and has been widely studied due to the economic importance of some taxa, such as the Oriental fruit fly Bactrocera dorsalis. Despite the attention this group has received, very few phylogenetic reconstructions have comprehensively sampled taxa from a single biogeographic region, thereby limiting our capacity to address more targeted evolutionary questions. To study the evolution of diet breadth and male lure response, two key traits fundamental to understanding dacine diversity and the biology of pest taxa, we analysed 273 individuals representing 144 described species from Australia (80% continental coverage), the Pacific, and select close relatives from South-east Asia to estimate a dated molecular phylogenetic reconstruction of the Dacini. We utilised seven loci with a combined total of 4,332 nucleotides, to estimate both Bayesian and Maximum Likelihood phylogenies of the tribe. Consistent with other molecular phylogenies of the tribe, there was a high level of disagreement between the placement of species in the phylogeny and their current subgeneric and species-complex level taxonomies. The Australian fauna exhibit high levels of endemism, with radiations of both exclusively Australian clades, and clades that originate elsewhere (e.g. the Bactrocera dorsalis species group). Bidirectional movement of species has occurred between Papua New Guinea and Australia, with evidence for multiple incursions over evolutionary time. The Bactrocera aglaiae species group emerged sister to all other Bactrocera species examined. Divergence time estimates were ∼ 30 my younger than previously reported for this group, with the tribe diverging from its most recent common ancestor ∼ 43 mya. Ancestral trait reconstruction and tests for trait phylogenetic signal revealed a strong signal for the evolution of male lure response across the tree, with cue-lure/raspberry ketone lure response the ancestral trait. Methyl eugenol response has arisen on multiple, independent occasions. The evolution of host breadth exhibited a weaker signal; yet, basal groups were more likely to be host specialists. Both the evolution of lure response and host fruit use provide predictive information for the outbreak management of understudied pest fruit flies for which direct inference of these features may be lacking. Our results, which parallel those of earlier research into the closely-related African Dacus spp., demonstrate how geographically focussed taxon coverage allows Dacini phylogenetics to more explicitly test evolutionary hypotheses, thereby progressing our understanding of the evolution of this highly diverse and recently-radiated group of flies.

An agent-based model to simulate the boosted Sterile Insect Technique for fruit fly management

The sterile insect technique (SIT) is a method of biological control of pests and disease vector insects. It includes mass-rearing and release of sterile males of the target species so that wild females mated with sterile males would not produce offspring. An innovative version of this technique, called boosted SIT, relies on the use of sterile males as vectors of biocides to trigger an epizootic in the wild fruit fly population. We built an agent-based model to assess the feasibility of this technique and main modalities of field implementation for the control of the Oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis, using the entomopathogenic fungi, Metarizhium anisopliae, as a biocide. The model, called BOOSTIT (BactrOcera dOrsaliS boosTed sIT), simulates the spatio-temporal population dynamics of fruit flies in three different realistic landscape contexts. The releases of infected and uninfected sterile males were simulated and allowed the transmission of the pathogen within the wild fly population as a result of interactions between individuals. A main output was the measurement of losses in mango production. Validation of the model was done by comparing the simulated population dynamics with data from field monitoring (pheromone traps) in three landscapes of the Niayes area in Senegal. The population dynamics of wild flies were then simulated in an intensive cropping and mono-mango cultivar landscape under three scenarios: (1) without the release of sterile males, (2) with the release of non-contaminated sterile males (SIT) and (3) with the release of sterile contaminated males (boosted SIT). The results showed that SIT and boosted SIT strongly reduced the density of wild flies and the amount of infested fruits. Although parameters of the pathogen transfer between individuals need to be studied more deeply, results encourage the implementation of field trials to validate the efficacy of boosted SIT to control fruit flies.

Management of fruit flies (Bactrocera spp.) in guava (Psidium guajava) by pheromone traps

Guava (Psidium guajava L.) is one of the most important commercial fruits grown in Punjab. Fruit flies (Bactrocera spp.) (Diptera: Tephritidae) are considered the key insect pest of guava causing yield losses and quality degradation during rainy season and thus decreasing fruit production. The present studies emphasis on ecofriendly management of fruitflies using the methyl eugenol pheromone traps (PAU traps) during 2017 and 2018. Fruit flies analysis by traps installation in guava orchard characterized high population of fruit flies (24.8–760.9) captured per trap per week (pooled mean of two years) in July to September. Population of fruit fly increased rapidly reaching its peak with weekly trap catches of 801.5 and 720.4 fruit flies/trap/week during the second week of August (32nd SMW) during 2017 and 2018 respectively, when the trees were at the maximum fruiting period. Maximum fruit infestation in control was observed in 34th and 35th SMW, i.e 67 and 81% as compared to 45 and 48% in treatment. The marketable fruits/ tree was 96 and 85 fruits/tree in treated plots as compared to 52 and 47 fruits/tree in untreated plots during 2017 and 2018 respectively. Mean fruit yield was 15.4 kg/tree and 12.6 kg/tree in treatment as compared to control with 8.8 kg/tree and 8.1 kg/tree during 2017 and 2019 respectively. There was significant increase in number of marketable fruits/tree and fruit yield. The results clearly depict that fruit fly traps offer one of the most effective method for the management of fruit flies especially in the rainy season.

Oviposition performance of tephritid polyphagous Anastrepha fraterculus and Ceratitis capitata during three periods of exposure to fruit.

Our study evaluated the oviposition behaviour of Anastrepha fraterculus (Wiedemann, 1830) and Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann, 1824) in five fruit species. Apples, guavas, mangoes, peaches and tangerines were exposed to infestation for 6, 12 and 24 hours. Anastrepha fraterculus and C. capitata showed different oviposition behaviour in apples and tangerines and similar oviposition behaviour in guavas, mangoes and peaches. There was a positive correlation between infestation time and pupae/kg, as well as between pupae/fruit and the survival rate of the immature (pupal viability). In this study, we present discussions about the oviposition behaviour of flies and the host infestation index. This index can reflect the reproductive capacity that each fruit species offers for each fly species. Here, we see an adult recovery rate greater than 89% in the highest infestation index observed in guava (185 A. fraterculus per unit fruit) and peach (220 C. capitata per unit fruit). Understanding the reproductive capacity of each host can help with risk analysis and the management of fruit flies.

Effect of Different Types of Iraqi Soils and Burial Depths of the Larvae and Pupae on the Adult Emergence Rate of the Mediterranean Fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann), Under Laboratory Conditions.

This experiment was conducted to study the effect of soil type (structure) and different dumping depths of larvae and pupae within the soil on the emergence rate of adults of the Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata, which is considered a major pest affecting citrus and stone fruits orchards. Three soil types were selected: sandy clay, clay loam and loam and for each type six dumping depths were tested (3, 5, 7, 10, 15 and 20 cm).The results showed that the soil type had a significant effect on the adults emergence rate, and the highest rate was recorded for the sandy clay soil, when using the last larval instars (pre-pupae) and pupal stages, and reached 55.28 and 51.66%, respectively. The results also showed that the soil type and dumping depth together have a significant effect on the adults' emergence rate of the Mediterranean fruit fly. The sandy clay soil and the two depths, 5 and 7 cm, gave the highest emergence rate which was 73.3 and 71.67%, respectively, when using the last larval instar. Whereas, the clay loam soil gave at 3 and 5 cm soil depths a 70% emergence rate for both dumping levels. The results also showed that the two soil types sandy clay and loam showed that the emergence of adults continued even at 20 cm depth. The results obtained in this research can be incorporated to the practices used for the integrated management of the Mediterranean fruit fly C. capitata. Keywords: Mediterranean fruit fly, soil type, soil depth, adults' emergence rate.

Management of fruit flies infesting muskmelon through eco-friendly modules

Management of fruit flies infesting muskmelon through eco-friendly modules

Evaluation of different traps and lures combinations for monitoring and eco-friendly management of fruit fly (Bactrocera Spp) in peach orchards

Chemical insecticides have hazardous effects on human health and the ecosystem hence there is a dire need of the hour to use nonchemical eco-friendly tactics for the management of major insect pests. While the use of traps and other attract-and-kill devices in pest management strategies to reduce fruit fly (Tephritidae) populations has proved to be efficient, therefore the current study was designed to evaluate different fruit fly traps and lure combinations for monitoring and eco-friendly management of fruit fly (Bactrocera spp) in the peach orchard at Agriculture Research Institute Swat. Among the tested traps, cylindrical bottle traps trapped the highest number of fruit flies/trap (155 fruit flies/trap/week), followed by Fruition NOVA® trap (34 fruit flies/trap/week) and Yellow sticky trap (12 fruit flies/trap/week). Similarly, for different lures the sequence is Methyl eugenol (134 fruit flies/trap/week)> Methyl eugenol + Cue lure (95 fruit flies/trap/week)> Fruition lure (26 fruit flies/trap/lure)> Cue lure (14 fruit flies/trap/week), while among different traps and lures combination Cylindrical bottle trap impregnated with Methyl eugenol trapped the highest number of fruit flies (321 fruit flies/trap/week) while the lowest number of fruit flies was trapped by Yellow sticky traps impregnated with Cue lure (10 fruit flies/trap/week). Moreover, among different species trapped in the peach orchard during 18 weeks B. zonata was found to be the most abundant (80 fruit flies/trap/week), followed by B. invadense (45 fruit flies/trap/week), B. dorsalis (7 fruit flies/trap/week), B. cucurbitae (1 fruit fly/trap/week) and B. tau (1 fruit fly/trap/week) while trapping population remained highest in mid-season (July, 2021) and it remained lowest at onset (June, 2021) and end of the season (September, 2021).

Mortality of Fruit Flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) Exposed to Spinetoram Toxic Bait in the Laboratory

Fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) cause significant losses during the production and marketing of horticultural products. Brazilian growers usually adopt full-coverage insecticide spraying to control fruit flies, but toxic bait is a more strategic technique, because reach efficacy and the target surface is the foliage and branches. We provide information regarding the toxicity of spinetoram bait to two fruit fly species in the laboratory as an alternative to organophosphates and the specific spinosad formulation. We tested toxic baits in the laboratory, using commercial hydrolysed corn protein (10% v/v) plus 90 g, 120 g, 150 g and 180 g dilutions of spinetoram 250 WG (commercial product/1,000 litres of water). All toxic baits were compared with an untreated control (only protein) for the adults of females and males of Anastrepha obliqua (Macquart, 1835) and Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann, 1824) up to 30 hours of exposure. Dry food for adults was included in all dilutions (5% w/v). In addition, we tested the residual effect of toxic baits applied to the leaves of mandarin seedlings. We used the same treatments of the earlier bioassay without dry food, collecting treated leaves and exposing them to C. capitata (medfly) females for 24 hours in the laboratory. Leaves were collected 1, 3, 7, 15 and 30 days after application. Overall, medfly adults were more susceptible to spinetoram baits than A. obliqua. All toxic baits resulted in 100% C. capitata mortality 24 hours after initial exposure, and the toxic bait at 150 g/1,000 L of water resulted in the maximum mortality (96%) in A. obliqua. Except for 90 g of spinetoram bait at 30 days after application, all spinetoram bait concentrations resulted in significantly, more dead C. capitata females than the control over all tested periods in the residual bioassay. At 30 days after application, spinetoram baits at 120 g, 150 g and 180 g resulted in 85%, 87% and 86% mortality in C. capitata, respectively. Spinetoram toxic baits have proven promising for long-term fruit fly management.

Efficacy of some biopesticides for the management of cucurbit fruit fly (Bactrocera cucurbitae Coquillett) infesting bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) in Barind tract of Bangladesh

An experiment was carried out to evaluate the efficiency of different biopesticides against the fruit fly infestation on bottle gourd. All of the treatments were effective compared to control. Among the treatments, Spinosad (Tracer 45 SC) performed the best based on minimum percent fruit infestation on both number and weight basis (30.71% & 32.64%) & highest percent protection of fruit over control (60.86% & 58.94%). Again, the highest marketable fruit yield (60.43 ton/ha) and percent yield increase of marketable fruit (70.46%) were also observed on Spinosad (Tracer 45 SC) treated plot. Based on the same parameters, Neem oil was inferior to Spinosad (Tracer 45 SC), which was followed by the treatment of Abamectin (Ambush 1.8 EC), Allamanda leaf extract and Mahogany oil. Thereby among all the treatments tested, Spinosad (Tracer 45 SC) may be suggested for cucurbit fruit fly management on bottle gourds.

Advancements in management of major fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) in North Africa and future challenges: A review

AbstractFruit flies are one of the most economically damaging pests of fleshy fruits worldwide. Two species of highest concern for fruit production in North Africa are the Mediterranean fruit fly (Medfly) Ceratitis capitata (Wied.) and the peach fruit fly (PFF) Bactrocera zonata (Saunders) (in Egypt and Libya only). Currently, both fruit fly species are mainly targeted by chemical applications of broad‐spectrum contact insecticides. Despite the disparities in control efforts among North African countries, government and research are focused on reducing chemical reliance and adopt more environmentally friendly technologies. In this review, advances in integrated pest management (IPM) implementation against fruit flies are outlined for each country. In addition, challenges for future efforts are identified with emphasis on the efficacy of trapping for monitoring and control.

Lethal and Sublethal Toxicity of Pesticides Used in Fruit Growing on the Parasitoid Diachasmimorpha longicaudata (Hymenoptera: Braconidae): Implications for Integrated Fruit Fly Management.

The larval-pupal endoparasitoid Diachasmimorpha longicaudata (Ashmead, 1905) is considered one of the main biological control agents of fruit flies Ceratitis capitata Wiedemann (1824) and Anastrepha fraterculus Wiedemann (1830) in Central and South America. The application of pesticides for disease and insect-pest management in fruit species may have adverse effects on the parasitoid. The objective of this study was to evaluate the lethal and sublethal effects via residual contact of commercial pesticide formulations on D. longicaudata. The active ingredients thiamethoxam, indoxacarb, chlorpyrifos, deltamethrin, spinetoram, spinosad, phosmet, lambda-cyhalothrin, malathion, dimethoate, and methidationa showed high toxicity to adults (100% mortality) after 96 h and were classified as harmful (Class 4). In contrast, the formulations of azadirachtin (Agroneem 850 EC, Azact 2.4 EC, Azamax 12 EC, and Fitoneem 850 EC), chlorantraniliprole, bordeaux mixture, sulfur, lufenuron, lime sulphur, novalurom, and mancozeb were rated as innocuous (<10% mortality). In addition, the formulations azadirachtin did not reduce the parasitism and the emergence rate of the F0 generation, the same pesticides added to chlorantraniliprole, azadirachtin A+B (Agroneem 850 EC), and lufenuron did not cause reduction in parasitism and emergence rate of the F1 generation of D. longicaudata. The use of pyrethroids, organophosphates, spinosyns, oxadiazines, and neonicotinoids should be used with caution in IPM programs. While pesticides chlorantraniliprole, azadirachtin formulations, bordeaux mixture, lufenuron, lime sulphur, and mancozeb do not cause lethal and sublethal effects for D. longicaudata adults. The results of this study provide important information for use in integrated pest management programs for fruit fly management.