Management Of Animal Genetic Resources Research Articles

Genetic Characterization of Myf5 and POU1F1 Genes in Different Egyptian Local Rabbit Breeds and Their Association with Growth Traits.

Genetic characterization and its association with quantitative traits in local breeds are important tools for the genetic improvement and sustainable management of animal genetic resources. Myogenic regulatory factor 5 (MYf5) and POU class 1 homeobox 1 (POU1F1) are candidate genes which play important roles in growth and development of mammals. The present study aims to detect the genetic diversity of the MYf5 and POU1F1 genes in four local Egyptian rabbit breeds and their association with growth traits, using PCR-restriction enzyme (PCR-RFLP), PCR-single-strand conformational polymorphism (PCR-SSCP), and direct sequencing techniques. The results showed that MYF5 exon 1 was observed with two genotypes in Baladi Black (BB), Gabali (GB) and New Zealand White (NZW) breeds while APRI-line (APRI) presented one genotype. The genetic diversity of Myf5 exon 2 between breeds showed two genotypes in APRI compared to three in NZW and four genotypes in BB and GB breeds. The genetic diversity of the POU1F1 gene (intron 5 and partial cds) in different rabbit breeds was two genotypes in NZW and three genotypes in BB, GB, and APRI breeds with different frequencies for each genotype. Based on the statistically significant difference between genes genotypes and growth weight, the results suggested that the genotypes of Myf5 exon 2 (1 and 2) of the BB breed, Myf5 exon 2 genotype 2 of the APRI breed, and genotype 1 of Myf5 exon 1 and genotype 1 of POU1F1 of the NZW breed compared to genotypes for each gene can be considered candidate molecular markers associated with the improvement of growth traits in these breeds.

Genetic Diversity and Demographic Evolution Using <I>SRY </I>Gene Polymorphism in Four Lineages of Ladoum Sheep in Senegal

Knowledge of spatial and temporal distribution of genetic diversity within and between populations is a crucial step for establishing strategies management of Animal genetic resources. This study aims to contribute to a better understanding of the genetic structure of local sheep breeds. Specifically, it will characterize the genetic diversity, differentiation and evolution of the <I>SRY </I>gene in four main lineages of Ladoum sheep in Senegal. After alignments and corrections, a total of 42 sequences were used for analysis of <I>SRY</I> genetic diversity and demographic evolution. The standard indices of genetic diversity, genetic differenciation, analyses of hierarchical molecular variance (AMOVA) and demographic tests were compute. Analysis of genetic variability parameters in the overall population revealed a low level of polymorphism in the <I>SRY </I>gene. Haplotypic diversity is much higher than the average nucleotide divergence between all pairs of haplotypes. The genetic distances, as well as the values of the genetic differentiation factor beetween lineages, reveal two genetic groups; one made up of the individuals of “Birahim” and the other, grouping the three lineages individuals. Differences in frequencies of essential proteins for a multitude of functions in the body are observed between the "Birahim" lineage and the others. The comparative trends in genetic diversity indices, the shape of the mismatch distribution curves, demographic indices and demogenetic tests show a rapid and recent expansion population from an ancestral small size. The Z-test analysis of selection revealed that <I>SRY </I>gene is under selection. Unlike “Batling” who is under negative selection, "Birahim" and "Gorgui" are under positive selection. This study has made a significant contribution to understanding the genetic structure of the Ladoum raised in Senegal.

Preliminary Results Regarding the Genetic History of a Native Horse Breed- Genetic Relationship between Sire Stallions and Broodmares

Background: This study is a part of an ample research concerning the genetic history of Hucul horse breed. The genetic analysis studies are part of animal genetic resources Management because just start of them we elaborate the strategies for inbreeding management. The itself genetic relationship of a population is the average genetic relationship of all individuals between them, existing at a time. Therefore, this parameter can be described three components: the genetic relationship between stallions, between mother mares themselves and the genetic relationship between stallions and mares. The last component is most important because of the average population inbreeding increases in successive generations. Methods: The research was carried out during 2012-2020. The material are represented by genealogical information from reproductive nucleus of Hucul breed from Lucina studfarm. The sample extracted from population was represented by seven sire stallions and seventy-three broodmares. The method are based on A matrix coefficients. All analysis were performed in the profile laboratories of Animal Sciences Faculties from Bucharest and Timisoara. Result: Between individual average genetic relationship values of stallions with mares, is found significant differences, highlighted by the global test of homogeneity test (F = 4.891). These differences allow us to assert that, through stallions selection, is made a reproductive discrimination much more intense than in mares case. The average genetic relationship of the population was calculated at 0.1941±0.0053.

Conservation for Effective Management of AnGR in India

Livestock sector forms an important livelihood activity for most of the farmers, supporting agriculture in the form of critical inputs, contributing to the health and nutrition of the household, supplementing incomes, offering employment opportunities, and finally being a dependable “bank on hooves” in times of need. India has vast Animal Genetic Resources (AnGR), which play a vital role in improving the socio-economic conditions of rural masses. AnGR is also of significant social and cultural importance, supplementing family incomes and generating gainful employment in the rural sector, particularly among the landless, small, marginal farmers and women. Global demand for livestock products is expected to double by 2050, mainly due to improvement in the worldwide standard of living. Meanwhile, extensive livestock production systems are being fast replaced with intensive and industrial production system due to change in land use, higher demand of livestock product and more and more keepers shifting to high producing improved breeds. The loss of a breed means the loss of a livelihood strategy and loss of indigenous knowledge. It also emphasizes the need for the active involvement of indigenous communities and the role of local knowledge and institutions in conservation.

The Conservation of Native Domestic Animal Breeds in Nordic Countries: From Genetic Resources to Cultural Heritage and Good Governance.

Simple SummaryNative breeds are domestic animals that have adapted to local conditions. Their genetic and cultural values are high. The conservation of these breeds is maintained by national conservation programmes and agricultural support schemes in Nordic countries. In addition to financial support, the conservation of native breeds requires that their importance in society be widely understood and recognised. This is especially crucial in the local communities in which such breeds are kept. Farmers raising native breeds should be highly motivated to utilise these breeds in animal production. This article examines the extent to which farmers and stakeholders recognise the genetic and cultural significance of conservation, and how the requirements of good governance are met in current conservation arrangements. Moreover, we contemplate the potential to amalgamate the management of animal genetic resources and their cultural environment.Native breeds are domestic animal populations that have adapted to their habitats. The genetic value of breeds has been known for a long time, and recently more attention has been paid to their cultural value. Due to both ecological and cultural significance, it is important that native breeds continue to be bred in their native environments. This is supported by various financial support schemes. Support schemes rarely cover the financial gap in output compared to commercial breeds. A solution to this has been sought in special products, such as cheese or wool, and other businesses, such as animal-assisted care and tourism. Less attention has been paid to the role of administration and good governance in the maintenance of native breeds. In this study, a questionnaire was sent to all registered keepers of native breeds in Finland. This survey clarified their reasons for keeping native breeds and their ideas for improving governance structures and practices. The results were discussed in stakeholder workshops, and in a Nordic context. The results show that genetic and cultural values are recognised in several documents and programmes, but farmers need to be engaged more in the design of support schemes and practices.

Sustainable Management of Animal Genetic Resources to Improve Low-Input Livestock Production: Insights into Local Beninese Cattle Populations

Persistent food insecurity, along with climate change pressures, urges on the definition of suitable strategies to support the transformation of low-input livestock farming in developing countries. Advances in genomics and information technologies are valuable opportunities for achieving the required improvement, but their implementation implies access to technical and financial resources with appropriate adjustment in the local context. Addressing extensive cattle production in Benin, we focus on animal genetic resources (AnGR) and corresponding approaches aiming for a durable breeding improvement based on sustainable management strategies. Specifically, smallholder breeding goals are revised, and novel strategies for proper organization, sound data collection, and scientific investigations are explored. Further emphasis addresses the enhancement of farmer management practices, including valuable traditional knowledge; and breeding strategies to improve animal performances considering robustness and further traits favored by the farmers. Against such a background, it is imperative that political, institutional, and scientific collaborations reinforce research capacities and technical and financial resources. In the given context, the current review article provides policymakers and national and international researchers with practical guidance based on scientific criteria for a smallholder livestock amelioration in Benin, scalable to other countries in sub-Saharan Africa.

Perspectives of National Coordinators for Animal Genetic Resources on the European Regional Focal Point: Survey Results

Abstract The European Regional Focal Point for Animal Genetic Resources (ERFP), is the European regional platform of National Coordinators (NCs) supporting management of animal genetic resources (AnGR). To assess the performance of the ERFP platform/network and consider options for its further development, a survey was performed among NCs. Twenty-five NCs responded to the survey on the roles, values and future of the platform. The paper provides an analysis of the results of the survey, including a ERFP SWOT analysis. NCs indicated high value of the support of the ERFP in fulfilling their functions at the national level. They highlighted the well-established network and facilitated communication and collaboration among NCs and other AnGR experts in Europe. The NCs appreciated the efficient organizational structure of the ERFP (Working Groups, Task Forces, Ad hoc Actions), and the well-functioning Secretariat. Indicated weak points included discontinuity of NC positions in some countries, and low levels of activities in some countries. NCs saw new opportunities for ERFP development in the context of the EU policy and regulatory framework related to AnGR management, and in strengthening the role of the Secretariat. No immediate threats were identified, however potential future threats included insufficient financing and lack of continuity. The NCs highly appreciated the substantial progress achieved by the ERFP over the last 20 years.

Monitoring and Progress in the Implementation of the Global Plan of Action on Animal Genetic Resources

Animal genetic resources are critical to livestock productivity and adaptability, facilitate resilience to climate change, and are a key contributor to food security and livelihoods around the world. The Global Plan of Action for Animal Genetic Resources (Global Plan), consisting of four Strategic Priority Areas (SPAs: Characterization; Sustainable use; Conservation; Policy), provides a framework to guide countries and other stakeholders on actions to improve the management of animal genetic resources. Assessing, reporting and monitoring the progress and implementation of the Global Plan are critical processes for understanding global commitments made to enhance livestock genetic diversity. In this study, three rounds of reporting (2012, 2014, and 2019) from Member Nations of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations were quantitatively analyzed to gain insight into the progress and implementation of the Global Plan by grouping questionnaires responses into quantitative indicator scores. Variations were found in indicator scores across SPAs, year, and regions, as well as within regions. Countries from North America and Europe and the Caucasus reported higher scores, while most BRICs countries (Brazil, India, China, South Africa) had high implementation scores relative to other countries in the same region. A significant positive correlation was observed between mean implementation scores in 2019 and GDP per capita (r = 0.456). Countries reporting higher implementation of in situ conservation also indicated higher proportions of breeds at risk. Significant progress was reported over the years for three of the four SPAs; SPA3 (conservation) was not found to have significantly improved. Despite the gains that have been made since 2012 in management of animal genetic resources, much remains to be done. The population status of nearly 60% of breeds is unknown while almost three quarters of breeds of known status are at risk of extinction. Efforts must continue to improve management of livestock genetic diversity, with further investments and development of approaches that support socio-economic viability of local genetic resources.

Genetic diversity and relationships among three Southern African Nguni cattle populations

The Nguni cattle breed has distinct populations that are adapted to the different ecological zones of Southern Africa. This study was carried out to assess genetic diversity and establish the relationships among South African (SA), Mozambican (Landim), and Swazi Nguni cattle populations, using 25 microsatellite markers. Genotypic data were generated from deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) samples of 90 unrelated individuals of the three cattle populations, collected from government conservations and stud herds. DNA profiles of five local beef breeds were used as the reference populations. Most of the 25 microsatellite markers were highly polymorphic across the studied populations, with an overall polymorphic information content (PIC) mean of 0.676. Genetic diversity within populations was high with expected heterozygosity varying from 0.705 ± 0.024 (Landim) to 0.748 ± 0.021 (SA Nguni) and mean number of alleles being highest in the SA Nguni (7.52 ± 0.42). Average observed heterozygosity (0.597 ± 0.046) compared to the expected heterozygosity (0.719 ± 0.022) was lowest for the Swazi Nguni, which also had a high number of Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium (HWE) deviated loci (13), confirming the relatively high level of inbreeding (0.158 ± 0.058) in that population. Analysis of molecular variance revealed only 9.61% of the total variation between the populations and 90.39% within populations. A short genetic distance (0.299) was observed between Landim and Swazi Nguni, with the SA Nguni (> 0.500) being the most genetically distant population. The distant relationship between SA Nguni and the other two Nguni cattle populations was further confirmed by a principal coordinates analysis. The three Nguni populations clustered independently from each other, despite some evidence of admixture. Therefore, it can be concluded that SA Nguni, Landim, and Swazi Nguni populations in Southern Africa exhibit high levels of genetic diversity and are genetically distant; with the two latter populations being less genetically apart. These results present useful information for the development of strategies for regional management of animal genetic resources, through conservation and sustainable utilisation.

Knowledge and perception of pelung keepers’s toward chicken contests in West Java, Indonesia

Asmara IY, Garnida D, Sulisytati M, Tejaningsih S, Partasasmita R. 2018. ­­­­Knowledge and perception of pelung keepers’s toward chicken contests in West Java, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 19: 2232-2237. Pelung chicken is an indigenous chicken breed which has social and cultural functions in particular communities in Indonesia. Contests are conducted regularly as a media to show the singing ability of Pelung chickens and the activities are considered important to maintain the existence of the chickens. The objective of this study was to determine the knowledge and perceptions of chicken keepers toward chicken contests for Pelung chickens. A survey using open and structured questionnaire was conducted to collect data involving 133 Pelung keepers. The study was carried out in four districts in West Java Province, Indonesia including Cianjur, Sukabumi, Bandung, and Garut Districts. The data were analyzed using descriptive analysis. The result showed that almost respondents knew about contests and they defined contests as a media to find good breeds as well as a media to find and/or improve networks. Main sources of information contests were the organization, family, and social media. Respondents had positive perception toward contests, and they actively participated in the different level of contests. The findings are important as social input for the management of animal genetic resources (AnGR) in Indonesia

Phenotypic characterization of beef cattle breeds and production practices in Liberia.

Phenotypic characterization of animal genetic resources (AnGR) involves identification of distinct breed populations, describing their external and production characteristics in a given environment and management, and taking into account the social and economic factors that affect them. A survey involving 346 livestock farmers was conducted in the 15 counties of Liberia to collect data on production practices and phenotypic characteristics of beef cattle. A pre-tested structured questionnaire, focus group discussions, and in-depth interviews were utilized in data collection. Phenotypic descriptors were measured using a measuring tape and weighing scale. The purpose for keeping beef cattle, preferred cattle traits, and challenges of beef cattle farmers were also assessed. Liberia's beef cattle are predominantly of Ndama (50%), Muturu (38%), and Zebu (11%) breeds. Beef cattle are mainly kept on free range with little investment in housing, feeding, and veterinary care. Beef cattle are raised mainly for income generation, with high cost and low availability of feed (32%), insufficient housing (25%), diseases (21%), and high costs of veterinary medicines (12%) being the main challenges faced by the farmers. Liberian beef cattle were characterized as being docile (53%) or moderate (33%) in temperament, with solid/uniform coat color pattern (61%), black coat color (26%), and non-pigmented skin (84%). The animals had mainly erect or lateral ears, straight back lines, and are sloped rumps. Disease (54%) and drought tolerance (30%) were the main adaptive traits reported. The body weight of beef cattle sampled ranged from 213 to 226kg, the body length from 119 to 122cm, and the heart girth from 134 to 140cm. The government of Liberia should improve policies on local AnGR management and support stakeholder institutions to ensure their sustainable use and conservation.

Systèmes d’élevage ovin et gestion des ressources génétiques animales dans la région du Plateau central du Burkina Faso

A l’image de l’ensemble de la filière de l’élevage dans les pays en développement, l’élevage ovin au Burkina Faso fait face à une demande croissante, dans un contexte de production socio­économique et environnemental contraignant. Cela a donné lieu à des croisements peu maîtrisés dans la zone périurbaine de la capitale, Ouagadougou. Afin d’identifier les moyens d’enca­drer ces pratiques pour rendre durables les systèmes ovins, une enquête a été conduite auprès de 63 éleveurs évoluant dans le milieu rural de la région du Plateau Central. L’objectif princi­pal était d’évaluer les possibilités d’une gestion intégrée entre les éleveurs ruraux et les éleveurs périurbains à travers notam­ment des échanges de femelles. Les données ont été collec­tées à travers des entretiens directs à l’aide d’un questionnaire comportant des questions ouvertes et fermées. Les résultats ont montré que l’ensemble des éleveurs avaient des stratégies de sélection à travers le choix des mâles reproducteurs. Ce choix se faisait essentiellement dans leur propre troupeau (98 % des interviewés) et quelquefois dans les marchés (22 %). Les objec­tifs principaux d’amélioration concernaient le poids adulte et la croissance des jeunes, ou le maintien de la rusticité. La brebis Djallonké, variété Mossi, était la race la plus rencontrée dans la zone (présente dans 97% des troupeaux). Mettant en œuvre leurs objectifs les éleveurs croisaient leurs brebis Mossi avec des béliers Peuhls, d’un plus grand gabarit, mais de manière tem­poraire afin de limiter la perte de résistance de leur troupeau. Le lien potentiel avec la production des éleveurs périurbains par la vente de femelles semblait faire face à des contraintes culturelles. Le système de production décrit par les éleveurs présentait des contraintes de durabilité et ne permettait pas de véritable intégration avec le système périurbain. Des approches participatives devraient être mises en œuvre localement afin d’élaborer des solutions appropriées pour accroître la produc­tion et la gestion durable des ressources zoogénétiques.

Assessing the diversity of preferences of suburban smallholder sheep keepers for breeding rams in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.

Urbanisation in developing countries entails deep changes in the livestock sector and the management of animal genetic resources (AnGR). Sheep breeding around Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso) illustrates these changes and the need to coordinate genetic improvement in general and the use of crossbreeding in particular. For this, it is important to understand breeders' choices and improvement strategy, to accompany them within a national plan for AnGR management. In a context of missing market for breeding rams, a stated choice experiment was conducted with 137 farmers, together with a characterisation of herd management practices. This survey analyses farmers' preferences for breeding rams, estimating their willingness to pay (WTP) for different traits (attributes). Their practices were characterised by a high reliance on natural pastures (82% of farmers) and a minority of crossbreeding (23%). The highest WTP was observed for disease resistance. However, the subgroup of farmers practicing crossbreeding showed a tolerance to high susceptibility. A strong preference for the white colour was revealed. Although significant, the influence of sheep body size on decision-making showed a lesser importance, again with a distinct behaviour in the subgroup practicing crossbreeding. These results illustrate the need to take account of the diversity of goals and preferences among smallholder sheep keepers to gain their adhesion to a coordinated genetic improvement framework.

NFORMATION SYSTEM IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AS A COMPONENT OF BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION STRATEGIES

NFORMATION SYSTEM IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AS A COMPONENT OF BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION STRATEGIES

The Role of Traditional Communities n the Management of Diversity of Sheep Populations in Caras - Severin County

Abstract Modernization of agriculture has led to the erosion of biodiversity of agroecosystems with implications for productivity in the sector. Degradation of genetic resources of plants, animals, insects and soil organisms causing economic losses threatening the food security of the population. This study is based on biodiversity in sheep populations in Caras - Severin and brings attention to traditional practices in the management of animal genetic resources. In the agroecosystem, maintaining the biodiversity is a guarantee for future challenges (growth and diversification of consumer demand, climate change, possible calamities) provided that at the consumer level there is an increased preference to traditional and organic products. From this point of view, it is remarkable the effort of private breeders in Caras - Severin to maintain the rustic varieties of sheep, but we think it requires a more resolute stand of the government and academic organisations for identification, preservation and support of such genetic resources valuable for all species. In Caras-Severin County, diversity of sheep populations is maintained in household or pastoral system in small and medium farms, the animal selection being based on the interest and preferences.

Stakeholder involvement and the management of animal genetic resources across the world

The sustainability of activities related to animal genetic resources (AnGR) management depends largely on the participation of a range of stakeholders, both public and private. In this study, we investigated factors explaining differences in stakeholder involvement in AnGR management across countries, based on an historical perspective and an analysis of the 128 official country reports provided during preparation of The Second Report on the State of the World's Animal Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. Results of principal component analyses indicated that countries differed in the involvement of stakeholders in AnGR management, generally with greater involvement of livestock breeders and their organizations in developed countries. Developing countries tended to be divided into two groups, those with little involvement by stakeholders and those with high involvement by government/research organizations. Depending on the country, the involvement of government/research organizations versus breeders/livestock keepers organizations and commercial companies also differed, which could be linked to some extent to their historical background. The level of involvement of breeders ‘associations or cooperatives was positively correlated (r=0.68) to the general extent of AnGR activities within the country. Our results underline the importance of involving breeders and livestock keepers in the development of management activities, while public support is required as well, especially in the early stages of capacity development. In developing countries, development policies relative to AnGR management should therefore seek to promote coordination among livestock keepers through creation and empowerment of cooperatives, associations or community-based approaches.

Market organization and animal genetic resource management: a revealed preference analysis of sheep pricing

Farm animal genetic resources are threatened worldwide. Participation in markets, while representing a crucial way out of poverty for many smallholders, affects genetic management choices with associated sustainability concerns. This paper proposes a contextualized study of the interactions between markets and animal genetic resources management, in the case of sheep markets in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. It focusses on the organization of marketing chains and the valuation of genetic characteristics by value chain actors. Marketing chain characterization was tackled through semi-structured interviews with 25 exporters and 15 butchers, both specialized in sheep. Moreover, revealed preference methods were applied to analyse the impact of animals’ attributes on market pricing. Data were collected from 338 transactions during three different periods: Eid al-Adha, Christmas and New Year period, and a neutral period. The neutral period is understood as a period not close to any event likely to influence the demand for sheep. The results show that physical characteristics such as live weight, height at withers and coat colour have a strong influence on the animals’ prices. Live weight has also had an increasing marginal impact on price. The different markets (local butcher, feasts, export market, sacrifices) represent distinct demands for genetic characteristics, entailing interesting consequences for animal genetic resource management. Any breeding programme should therefore take this diversity into account to allow this sector to contribute better to a sustainable development of the country.

Factors and determinants of animal genetic resources management activities across the world

This paper investigates the factors affecting the implementation of various management activities related to the characterization, use and conservation of animal genetic resources (AnGR) across countries. The 128 official country reports provided for The Second Report on the State of the World's Animal Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture were analysed based on a multivariate approach. These reports investigated topics related the national level of AnGR diversity, the extent of characterization activities, use and breeding programmes and conservation activities, as well as capacities in AnGR management and the use of biotechnologies related to livestock breeding. A large part of the variability (34.7%) of the dataset could be explained by one synthetic variable, which could be interpreted as the general extent of AnGR related activities, and indicate that country efforts on AnGR are directed relatively homogenously towards the various activities and species considered. This variable differentiated mainly OECD and BRICS countries from less developed ones. OECD and BRICS countries also appeared to be differentiated with respect to the use of some specific biotechnologies such as cloning, genetic modification and transplantation of gonadal tissues. With regards to economic and development indicators, the first synthetic variable showed large correlation with the number of researchers in agricultural sciences per inhabitant (r=0.643) and national GDP (r=0.516). Capacities in research therefore appeared to be one of the main enabling forces for activities related to AnGR and the implementation of the Global Plan of Action (GPA) for AnGR.

Editorial: Advances in Farm Animal Genomic Resources.

Editorial: Advances in Farm Animal Genomic Resources.

Cattle Breeds: Extinction or Quasi-Extant?

Uniquely selected breeds bred over thousands of years of domestication in a wide range of environments have been declared extinct over the last century. Still more breeds are at risk of becoming extinct and the rate continues to accelerate. Assessing the current status and possible future dynamics of livestock breeds is therefore a critical step in the management of Animal Genetic Resources (AnGR). This study applies a qualitative approach to comprehensively analyze cattle genetic resources in selected countries in order to better understand the risk status of cattle breeds and those that need to be considered extinct and/or quasi-extant. The status of each breed, i.e., not at risk, critical, endangered and extinct, was verified using information available at the Domestic Animal Diversity Information System (DAD-IS) web site, as well as cattle statistics (where available) and a breed survey. In most examples, breeds listed as extinct have played important roles in the development of new breeds, and should not be classified as extinct, unless proven otherwise, given that even breeds existing in vivo are developing. Therefore, a new risk status quasi-extant for this category of cattle breeds is suggested. In addition, based on the findings of this study, the concept of breed needs to be questioned as relates to it being a good measure of genetic diversity. Further investigations of the situation of cattle breeds (and other livestock species) in more countries/continents using similar categories are deemed necessary.