Zoo Management Research Articles

An optimal and near-optimal strategy to selecting individuals for transfer in captive breeding programs

As species extinction rates continue to rise, zoos have adopted a more active role in the conservation of endangered species. A central concern is to preserve genetic diversity of zoological populations. Accordingly, when selecting individuals to transfer to new or existing populations, zoo managers must consider the genetic effects on all populations involved. We propose a quadratic integer programming (IP) model to identify a group of individuals to transfer that maximizes genetic diversity within two subpopulations. We then reduce this model to a linear IP formulation and apply it to the California condor ( Gymnogyps californianus) studbook. After simplifying the linear IP model, optimality is achieved within a reasonable time limit when a limited number of individuals are relocated. We also develop a local improvement algorithm (LIA) to efficiently provide near-optimal solutions when we increase the number of transferred individuals. The LIA quickly obtains optimal solutions when few individuals are transferred and in most cases, the LIA outperforms MetaMK, an existing program used to select animals for transfer.

Personality in nonhuman primates: a review and evaluation of past research

Scientific reports of personality in nonhuman primates are now appearing with increasing frequency across a wide range of disciplines, including psychology, anthropology, endocrinology, and zoo management. To identify general patterns of research and summarize the major findings to date, we present a comprehensive review of the literature, allowing us to pinpoint the major gaps in knowledge and determine what research challenges lay ahead. An exhaustive search of five scientific databases identified 210 relevant research reports. These articles began to appear in the 1930s, but it was not until the 1980s that research on primate personality began to gather pace, with more than 100 articles published in the last decade. Our analyses of the literature indicate that some domains (e.g., sex, age, rearing conditions) are more evenly represented in the literature than are others (e.g., species, research location). Studies examining personality structure (e.g., with factor analysis) have identified personality dimensions that can be divided into 14 broad categories, with Sociability, Confidence/Aggression, and Fearfulness receiving the most research attention. Analyses of the findings pertaining to inter-rater agreement, internal consistency, test-retest reliability, generally support not only the reliability of primate personality ratings scales but also point to the need for more psychometric studies and greater consistency in how the analyses are reported. When measured at the level of broad dimensions, Extraversion and Dominance generally demonstrated the highest levels of inter-rater reliability, with weaker findings for the dimensions of Agreeableness, Emotionality, and Conscientiousness. Few studies provided data with regard to convergent and discriminant validity; Excitability and Dominance demonstrated the strongest validity coefficients when validated against relevant behavioral criterion measures. Overall, the validity data present a somewhat mixed picture, suggesting that high levels of validity are attainable, but by no means guaranteed. Discussion focuses on delineating major theoretical and empirical questions facing research and practice in primate personality.

Toxoplasma gondii and Leishmania spp. infection in captive crab-eating foxes, Cerdocyon thous (Carnivora, Canidae) from Brazil

The zoonoses toxoplasmosis and leishmaniasis are important worldwide and also affect wild animals. Thus, the present study aimed to assess the prevalence of Leishmania spp. and Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in 52 serum samples from captive crab-eating foxes ( Cerdocyon thous) kept in 17 zoos in São Paulo State, Brazil. Modified agglutination test (MAT, for toxoplasmosis) and indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT, for toxoplasmosis and leishmaniasis) were employed with heterologous anti-dog immunoglobulin. Antibodies to T. gondii were found in 19.2% animals, with an almost perfect concordance ( κ = 0.86; standard error = 9.31%; CI95% = 68.25–104.76%; P < 0.0001) and a strong correlation coefficient ( rs = 0.87; P < 0.0001), which allows the use of heterologous anti-dog immunoglobulin to perform IFAT for toxoplasmosis in crab-eating foxes. No sample was positive for Leishmania spp. Toxoplasmosis infection occurs in wild animals from the studied Brazilian zoos, which indicates a probable environmental contamination, highlighting the importance of appropriate zoo management and the action of the parasite as a sentinel to human infection.

Enjoyment in zoos

Zoo visits are often described as fun outings by adults and family visitors alike, yet previous research into motivations, benefits and satisfaction with such outings has yet to describe what aspects of these experiences are sources of enjoyment. This paper reports results from a study that investigated how adult visitors define enjoyment in zoo experiences. Q methodology was used in order to address the inherent subjectivity of personal enjoyment because it allowed the participants to construct unique, personal meaning, while quantitatively comparing these constructed narratives to one another. Four distinct, socially held perspectives of what enjoyment means to visitors emerged in the analysis. Each of these perspectives represented a unique combination of factors that provide new insight into how adult visitors evaluate their personal enjoyment while at the zoo. The authors conclude that these findings offer zoo managers new information by which to assess their programme offerings and satisfaction measures.

Facility design for Bachelor Gorilla groups

This paper emerged from discussions following the Bachelor Gorilla 2000 Workshop Facility Design sessions. Although many ape facility design features are common to all gorillas, the purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of special needs of bachelor gorillas. For example, managing escalating aggression between maturing or silverback males may require a high degree of caregiver intervention and thus easy access to gorillas both on- and off-exhibit is beneficial. Facility design features that reduce contact aggression, increase affiliation, provide visual barriers or escape routes, and allow safe outlets for species-typical behavior are essential to the successful management of bachelor gorilla groups in zoos. Such provisions permit caregivers the ability to constantly monitor and modify the zoo environment to meet rapidly changing husbandry needs. Creatively designed habitats and continuing research on bachelor group dynamics will undoubtedly allow zoo managers to maintain all gorilla groups in an environmental and social context that enhances well-being over the long term.

Welfare Evaluations of Zoo Animals in the Philippines

We have evaluated welfare standards of zoo animals in five major zoological institutions in the Philippines namely Avilon Zoo, Wildlife Rescue Center, Manila Zoo, Zoobic Zoo and Baluarte Zoo. We have interviewed both visitors and zoo keepers to assess animal welfare standards, especially on the health, nutrition, behavior, shelter, display, space, documentation, signage, and other management practices. All the five zoos showed significant diff erence on the mean scores of visitors and zoo keepers. The Avilon Zoo received the highest standard rating followed by Zoobic, Manila Zoo, Baluarte Zoo, and Wildlife Rescue Center. Besides, we have identified several problems related to animal welfare and zoo management. We have made appropriate recommendations to all the five zoos to improve animal welfare standards following regional and international standards.

Intestinal parasites in various animals at a zoo in Malaysia

A survey was undertaken to investigate the prevalence of intestinal parasites from different groups of mammals housed in a zoological garden in Malaysia. A total of 197 faecal samples were collected randomly from various primates (99), hoofed mammals (70) and feline (28). It was discovered that 89.3% of feline, 54.5% of primates and 45.7% of hoofed mammals were infected with intestinal parasites. Intestinal parasites found in primates were Balantidium coli (19.2%), Cryptosporidium spp. (14.1%), hookworm (10.1%), Trichuris spp. (5.1%), Ascaris (4.0%) and Blastocystis spp. (2.0%). For hoofed mammals, hookworm had the highest prevalence (34.3%) followed by Trichuris spp. and Cryptosporidium spp. (5.7%). Meanwhile, for feline, Toxocara cati was the most prevalent (64.3%), followed by Cryptosporidium spp. (14.3%), Spirometra spp. (7.1%), and hookworm (3.6%). Animals that were infected were all asymptomatic with low parasite load. Routine monitoring of the presence of parasites in animals kept in the zoo is imperative in assisting zoo management in the formulation and implementation of preventive and control measures against the spread of infectious parasitic diseases among animals within the zoo or to humans.

Pregnancy diagnosis in wild canids using a commercially available relaxin assay

Accurate detection of pregnancy is a useful tool in zoo management and husbandry, conservation breeding programs and research settings. Our study evaluated the ability of a commercial relaxin hormone assay used in domestic dogs (ReproCHEK(TM)) to accurately detect pregnancy through plasma analysis in two wolf and two fox species. The relaxin assay detected all of the pregnancies greater than 25 days gestation for island foxes, fennec foxes, gray wolves, and Mexican gray wolves. For island foxes, three negative relaxin results were attributed to using the test earlier postconception than manufacturer recommendation (before day 20). Five other negative results were found for females estimated at 15-25 days gestation, spanning the early and intermediate period (21-30 days gestation) when relaxin may be detected but less reliably. There were no false-positive results in nonmated negative control animals. Relaxin assay results were highly correlated with ultrasound results and the intra-assay replicate agreement was 100%. Our results show that the ReproCHEK(TM) commercial relaxin assay is a minimally invasive and reliable method for pregnancy detection in these wild species when used after 25 days gestation and might be applied to other canids as well. Furthermore, this assay is easy to run and requires no specialized equipment, making it extremely useful for zoo and field research applications. Zoo Biol 27:406-413, 2008. (c) 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Development of the zoological garden and mental hospital.

Ellenberger in 1960 described the parallel histories of the zoological garden and the mental hospital. To determine how impressions of the 2 institutions have evolved in the intervening years, students in an abnormal psychology class rated several mental hospital and zoo terms. The zoo was rated more positively than the mental hospital, but not as favorably as the wild animal park or the nature reserve. These ratings reflect the changes in zoo design and management that have occurred in the intervening years. Improvements in mental hospital design and mission were largely derailed by the deinstitutionalization movement. A second study, intended to examine the fruitfulness of Ellenberger's comparison, asked students about the "show value" of patients in different diagnostic categories. There was a negative relationship between preference for seeing patients on a tour, in which the major psychoses were top choices, and clients with less severe disorders with whom students would prefer to work professionally.

AVIARY AIR-HANDLER DESIGN AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO FUNGAL SPORE LOADS IN THE AIR

Fungal spore loads in the air of cool-temperature, temperate, and tropical aviaries were collected with an Andersen N-6 air sampler. The relationship of spore loads to air-handler and exhibit design in these three environments was examined. In addition, a 2-yr longitudinal study of fungal spore loads in the air of a newly designed and installed air-handling system in the R. J. Reynolds Forest Aviary at the North Carolina Zoological Park was compared to the earlier air-handling system that it replaced. High-efficiency particulate air filters installed in cool-temperature aviaries produced the cleanest air, although pleated filters showed only marginally higher spore loads. Temperate and tropical aviaries with pleated filters or bag filters with variable-velocity fans had much higher spore loads. Tropical and temperate exhibits with bag filters and constant-velocity fans produced the cleanest air in tropical and temperate exhibits. Information on the relative effectiveness of different air-handling system designs and related costs/benefits should be used by zoo managers when they are designing or retrofitting aviary air-handling systems.

A world survey of husbandry practices for Lion‐tailed macaques Macaca silenus in captivity

A questionnaire survey was conducted to compare husbandry and management protocols for Lion‐tailed macaques Macaca silenus in 42 zoos in various parts of the world. A relatively higher number of zoos outside India compared with those in India reported foraging behaviour in their individuals, whereas abnormal behaviour was rare. The reproductive success of macaques in these zoos was also significantly higher than that in Indian zoos. The results of this study suggest that group composition, enclosure design, dietary preparation and nutrition, as well as visitor–animal interaction influence the welfare and breeding success of Lion‐tailed macaques in Indian zoos. Also, poor management is a problem in the Indian‐zoo scenario. Hence, we emphasize the need for good zoo management through proper record‐keeping, regularized behaviour monitoring and administration of environmental enrichment, and a well‐established marking/tagging method to identify individual animals.

Toward a Science of Welfare for Animals in the Zoo

Although the accredited institutions of the Association of Zoos and Aquariums have all committed to enhancing the welfare of nonhuman animals, acceptable standards and best practices are still under debate. Currently, experts from zoos and the field hold widely divergent opinions about exhibition and management standards for elephants. Standards and practices for managing nonhuman primates provide a model for other nonhuman creatures exhibited in zoos and aquariums. Examining the key issues for primates demonstrates the value of applying scientific data before promulgating standards. The field of applied behavior analysis provides a wealth of information to frame the debate. Animal behaviorists have contributed to an emerging science of animal welfare, which may provide a foundation for empirical zoo management, standards, and practices.

Genetic diversity of captive binturongs (Arctictis binturong, Viverridae, Carnivora): implications for conservation

AbstractThe binturong Arctictis binturong is a threatened carnivore (Mammalia) that ranges throughout the forests of South‐east Asia. This study evaluates the genetic diversity of captive binturong populations in European zoos and attempts to assess their geographic origin. We sequenced the hypervariable region 1 of the mitochondrial control region of 56 binturongs, among which 20 had a known geographic origin. We showed that at least two distinct geographic clades exist and were able to assess the geographic clade to which captive individuals belong. Moreover, a low genetic diversity was observed among the captive population of European zoos. Although our results are preliminary, zoo managers should consider the evolutionary significant units identified by this study, and which correspond to recognized sub‐species, when planning binturong reproduction programs.

Phylogenetic divisions among Collared peccaries ( Pecari tajacu) detected using mitochondrial and nuclear sequences

The Collared peccary ( Pecari tajacu) is one of the three extant recognised species of the family Tayassuidae, living in the Americas. To understand phylogenetic relationships among Collared peccaries, the entire mitochondrial DNA control region and cytochrome b as well as partial nuclear GPIP and PRE-1 P27, PRE-1 P642 and TYR sequences from specimens from Colombia, Argentina, Bolivia, Mexico, United States and Australian zoo animals of unknown origin were analysed. Separate and combined analyses of the mitochondrial sequences provided good resolution of Collared peccary relationships. Nuclear sequences were partially informative when combined sequence analyses were performed. Maximum Likelihood analyses of mitochondrial sequences showed that Collared peccaries clustered in two major clades, representing North-Central American and South American specimens. Collared peccaries from Colombia are paraphyletic. Statistical Parsimony analysis of combined nuclear sequences showed a distribution of DNA variants consistent with mitochondrial sequence analyses. However, there is an uncoupling of nuclear and mitochondrial sequence variation in two specimens from Colombia. The present study suggests the recent contact of isolated populations within Colombia and possible mitochondrial introgression between the North/Central clade and the South clade. Pairwise genetic distances comparison of mitochondrial sequences show that divergence between the two major clades of the Collared peccary was higher and comparable respectively with that within and between the other two recognised peccary species. Divergence between the two major clades of the Collared peccary was also higher than that observed within and even between recognised species of the Suidae family. The divergence within the major clades of the Collared peccary showed comparable values with those observed within the other two species of Tayassuidae and within six species of Suidae. The results show that the geographically widespread and phenotypically diverse Collared peccary consists of two species or at least subspecies with implications for management of wild, zoo and captive populations.

A Dr. Doolittle Primer

Membership departments at zoological parks and aquariums are constantly working to retain existing members. Communicating effectively with these constituents plays is a major component in enhancing the customer service aspect of member-based programs. Further, public relations management serves as the glue that provides the cohesiveness between an organization and its key publics. An organization that provides quality customer service is demonstrating its commitment to engage in proactive public relations managerial practices. This study is conducted within the theoretical framework of systems theory as it relates to public relations communication, evaluation, and feedback methods. It seeks to determine how zoo managers across the United States are employing relationship-building communication, evaluation, and feedback strategies to retain members. The rationale behind employing measurement and evaluation techniques is to help practitioners proactively make better, more informed decisions about the design of their communication programs, which, in turn, enhances quality customer service.

AZA Wildlife Contraception Center Programs

Author(s): Asa, Cheryl S. | Abstract: Controlling reproduction is a responsibility facing both zoo and wildlife managers, and contraception is one of their options. However, management goals and parameters affecting administration of contraceptives vary considerably for free-ranging and captive wildlife. Captive breeding programs consider the entire captive population but manage at the level of the individual. Not only must they focus on the genetic value of individual animals, but each birth results in an animal that will require resources and occupy limited space for its lifetime. Thus, captive programs dictate that contraceptive be virtually 100% effective, safe, and reversible. This contrasts with management of most free-ranging animals, where reproductive rate of the population, not each individual, is the measure of success. The other notable distinction is ease of delivery in captive populations, perhaps the greatest challenge with free-ranging animals. Captive animals are always accessible, are individually known, and can be monitored. Yet, despite these differences, zoo and wildlife biologists can benefit from collaborative efforts, especially when they target the same species. In particular, trials with captive animals can provide more definitive results than comparable studies with free-ranging animals. In addition, we all face the problems inherent in programs that represent a limited commercial market. Improved communication and exploring the potential for collaborations may accelerate our progress.

Body weight as an effective tool for determination of onset of puberty in captive female Nile hippopotami (Hippopotamus amphibious)

AbstractProfiles of fecal progestogens and body weight from the early juvenile to the peri‐pubertal period are presented for eight captive female Nile hippopotami housed at Disney's Animal Kingdom in Florida. Average growth rate in juveniles was 0.85±0.03 kg/day (r2=0.913). Progestogen elevations were detectable as early as 16.8 months of age, and elevations indicative of ovulation and luteal activity were identified in seven of eight females by 30.3±1.6 months of age and body weight of 829.3±49.4 kg. Progestogen patterns before the onset of puberty were highly variable within and between females. Some females remained at baseline concentrations, whereas in others the progestogen pattern was characterized by infrequent, transient elevations of low amplitude and shortened duration. Four females were monitored through onset of puberty, conception, and first pregnancy. Onset of puberty was defined as the first luteal phase from the series of consecutive ovarian cycles culminating in conception and was observed at 34.9±2.2 months of age and 963.6±39.4 kg, however, the quality and number of cycles varied among females before conception. Females conceived between 2.7–3.9 years of age after attaining an approximate threshold body weight of 1,000 kg (1,070.5±39.5 kg). The age at first conception in captivity occurs at a younger age than has been reported for wild populations. Body weight may be an effective tool for approximating the state of reproductive maturity and facilitate collection management in zoos. Zoo Biol. 0:1–13, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

The Zoo as Ecotourism Attraction – Visitor Reactions, Perceptions and Management Implications: The Case of Hamilton Zoo, New Zealand

This paper reports results from a survey of 359 visitors to Hamilton Zoo, New Zealand. The questionnaire comprised items relating to motives for visiting the zoo, and evaluations of attributes, thereby permitting an importance-evaluation approach. The construction of the questionnaire was prompted by zoo management wishing to learn more about what motivated visits, and whether there were perceived deficiencies in visitors' experiences of the zoo. Like other studies (e.g. Turley, 2001) it was concluded that zoos represent an opportunity for family-based trips. However, while some opportunities exist for learning, on the whole visitors were not generally interested in acquiring detailed information about wildlife. Indeed, more importance was attached to the viewing of animals than to the recognition that possibly animals might require 'private places'. These findings prompt a discussion about the extent to which zoos might be able to replace or supplement trips to natural habitats as a means of viewing animals, and concludes that for this to happen significant changes in zoo layout would be required. Additionally, possible implications for zoo management are discussed.

Maintaining Behavioural Diversity in Captivity for Conservation: Natural Behaviour Management

AbstractBehavioural management in zoos is often practiced within the confines of environmental enrichment, a well-known method which attempts to increase the welfare of captive animals. For the successful conservation and reintroduction of threatened or endangered species, however, it is also important to manage behaviour in such a way as to maintain behavioural diversity. The development of natural behaviour management (NBM) programs is advocated in this paper. These programs will act to maintain behavioural diversity in captivity and will encourage behaviour to be displayed in appropriate contexts through exposure of captive animals to naturalistic stimuli. The importance of developing appropriate antipredator and predation behaviours will be discussed in order to demonstrate how NBM strategies differ from, and can even conflict with, environmental enrichment strategies undertaken for welfare reasons.

Zoo and aquarium animal management and conservation: current trends and future challenges

The turn of the century appears to be a good time to examine the role of zoos and aquariums, both in the past and present, and to predict what role these organizations will play in animal management and conservation in the future. In this review three main trends are considered: (1) the loss of wildlife habitats and, therefore, wildlife, (2) the increase in the number of animal‐welfare and animal‐rights organizations, and (3) the continued urbanization of the Earth's human population. Several predictions and positive action points are given for each trend and if these are taken on board and developed, zoos and aquariums of the future may become leaders in conservation, education and science.