Male Road Research Articles

Heat strain in road construction workers during the summer in New Mexico: a preliminary study.

To report heat strain and environmental heat stress in a pilot study of road construction workers during work in the summer. Seven male road construction workers in New Mexico were observed performing physically demanding work during a summer work shift. Environmental heat stress (heat index [HI], dry/wet bulb temperature, and relative humidity), Tcore, and skin temperature (Tskin) were measured continuously at a single job site throughout the workday. Hydration was assessed pre- and post-shift via measurements of urine specific gravity (USG) and changes in body weight. The peak HI recorded throughout the workday was 34.1 °C, corresponding to a "warning" heat risk level according to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration Heat Safety Tool App. Two of seven (29%) workers reached a peak Tcore of greater than 38.0 °C, and 4 (57%) began the work shift dehydrated, indicated by a USG >1.020. Findings from this pilot study suggest that road construction workers may begin their shifts dehydrated and some experience moderate hyperthermia while performing physically demanding work in hot environmental conditions.

Assessing Energy Availability and Glucose Dynamics in Adolescent Cyclists: Implications for Nutritional Interventions During the Competitive Season.

The risk of developing a state of low energy availability (LEA) (<30 kcals/kg free-fat mass) in endurance athletes is known and recommendations for nutrition are available. However, information on male adolescent cyclists and the influence of hot temperatures is limited. The aim of this study was to investigate the impact on energy availability of two 4-day nutritional intervention strategies: (1) supplementary carbohydrate (CHO) intake during exercise and (2) designing and implementing individual nutritional interventions. Each intervention was preceded by a 4-day basal assessment. Eight competitive male junior road cyclists (aged 16-17 years) were investigated using a 4-day diet and activity records, alongside bioelectric impedance analysis. Their real-time power output, interstitial glucose, and temperature were recorded via sensors and a bike computer. Their energy intake (EI) was estimated from daily, self-reported food diaries. Overall, 100% and 71% of the cyclists were in a state of LEA during the baseline assessment of the supplementary CHO and nutritional interventions, respectively. LEA prevalence, not modified by supplementary CHO intake alone (from 100% to 87%, ns), was markedly reduced by the individual nutritional intervention (from 71% to 14%, p < 0.05). When considering all the data as a whole, LEA was positively influenced by the training load (OR 1.06; 95% Cl 1.03 to 1.09) and free-fat mass (OR 1.46; 1.04 to 2.04) and was negatively affected by EI (OR 0.994; 0.991 to 0.997). A hot environment (air temperature) failed to influence the LEA or glucose dynamics. the nutritional intervention, but not the supplementary CHO intake, markedly reduced the prevalence of LEA in adolescents, who often fail to match their energy expenditure with their energy intake during the competitive season. Nutritional education is essential for adolescent endurance cycling teams.

The Night-Time Sleep and Autonomic Activity of Male and Female Professional Road Cyclists Competing in the Tour de France and Tour de France Femmes.

Sleep is a critical component of recovery, but it can be disrupted following prolonged endurance exercise. The objective of this study was to examine the capacity of male and female professional cyclists to recover between daily race stages while competing in the 2022 Tour de France and the 2022 Tour de France Femmes, respectively. The 17 participating cyclists (8 males from a single team and 9 females from two teams) wore a fitness tracker (WHOOP 4.0) to capture recovery metrics related to night-time sleep and autonomic activity for the entirety of the events and for 7days of baseline before the events. The primary analyses tested for a main effect of 'stage classification'-i.e., rest, flat, hilly, mountain or time trial for males and flat, hilly or mountain for females-on the various recovery metrics. During baseline, total sleep time was 7.2 ± 0.3h for male cyclists (mean ± 95% confidence interval) and 7.7 ± 0.3h for female cyclists, sleep efficiency was 87.0 ± 4.4% for males and 88.8 ± 2.6% for females, resting HR was 41.8 ± 4.5 beats·min-1 for males and 45.8 ± 4.9 beats·min-1 for females, and heart rate variability during sleep was 108.5 ± 17.0ms for males and 119.8 ± 26.4ms for females. During their respective events, total sleep time was 7.2 ± 0.1h for males and 7.5 ± 0.3h for females, sleep efficiency was 86.4 ± 1.2% for males and 89.6 ± 1.2% for females, resting HR was 44.5 ± 1.2 beats·min-1 for males and 50.2 ± 2.0 beats·min-1 for females, and heart rate variability during sleep was 99.1 ± 4.2ms for males and 114.3 ± 11.2ms for females. For male cyclists, there was a main effect of 'stage classification' on recovery, such that heart rate variability during sleep was lowest after mountain stages. For female cyclists, there was a main effect of 'stage classification' on recovery, such that the percentage of light sleep (i.e., lower-quality sleep) was highest after mountain stages. Some aspects of recovery were compromised after the most demanding days of racing, i.e., mountain stages. Overall however, the cyclists obtained a reasonable amount of good-quality sleep while competing in these physiologically demanding endurance events. This study demonstrates that it is now feasible to assess recovery in professional athletes during multiple-day endurance events using validated fitness trackers.

Seat Pressure Asymmetries after Cycling at Constant Intensity

The aim of this study was to compare seat pressure asymmetries before and after 30 min cycling at constant intensity in association with pelvic anthropometric parameters and skeletal muscle fatigue. Twelve male road cyclists aged 18–30 years (mean training experience 9.9 ± 2.5 years) participated. Pelvic anthropometric data and body composition were measured with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Participants performed 30 min cycling at 50% peak power output at constant intensity on a cyclus-2 ergometer. Muscle fatigue during cycling was assessed by surface electromyogram spectral mean power frequency (MPF) for the back, gluteal, and thigh muscles. The pressure mapping system was used to assess sitting symmetry before and after the cycling exercise. At the end of cycling, MPF was decreased (p &lt; 0.05) in the dominant side’s erector spinae muscle and the contralateral gluteal muscle. After the exercise, a significant (p &lt; 0.05) asymmetry in seat pressure was observed under the ischial tuberosity based on the peak pressure right to left ratio, whereas peak pressure decreased under the left ischial tuberosity. After the exercise, the relationship (p &lt; 0.05) between pelvis width and pressure under the ischial tuberosity occurred on the dominant side of the body. In conclusion, an asymmetry was revealed after the constant-load cycling exercise by peak pressure ratio right to left side. Further studies should address the role of seat pressure asymmetries before and after cycling exercises at different intensities and durations.

Time-course Changes of Field- and Laboratory-based Performance Indicators in Junior Cyclists Through a Season.

This study aimed to assess the seasonal evolution of field-based and laboratory-based performance indicators in cyclists. Thirteen Junior male road cyclists (age 17.4±0.5 years) were followed up during a season, which was divided in three phases: early season (involving mainly training sessions), mid-season (including the first competitions), and late season (including the major competitions of the season). During each phase, field-based power output data were registered for the assessment of maximum mean power values, and laboratory-based endurance (ramp test and simulated 8-minute time trial), muscle strength/power (squat, lunge, hip thrust) and body composition indicators (dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry) were also assessed. A progressive (p<0.01) increase in maximum mean power values (e.g., 3.8±0.3 and 4.5±0.4 watts/kg in early and late season, respectively, for 60-minute efforts) and on 8-minute time trial performance (i.e., 5.3±0.3 and 5.6±0.4 watts/kg, respectively) was observed through the season. Yet, more "traditional" endurance indicators (i.e., ventilatory threshold, respiratory compensation point, or maximum oxygen uptake) seemed to show a ceiling effect beyond the mid-season. In addition, neither peak power output, body composition, nor muscle strength indicators followed a similar pattern to the aforementioned field-based indicators. In summary, in Junior cyclists field-based indicators seem more sensitive to monitor endurance cyclists' changes in actual fitness and performance capacity than more "traditional" laboratory-based markers in Junior cyclists.

The reliability of a linear position transducer for measuring countermovement jump performance in national-level road cyclists.

Jump tests have applications in fatigue monitoring, training intervention evaluations, and talent identification in cycling populations. Due to competitive cycling's inherent travel demands, linear position transducers (LPTs) are suitable for assessing jump performance in this population as they are a mobile and validated technology. Understanding the reliability and sensitivity of LPTs in assessing jump performance in cycling populations is required to support the development of sports science protocols. Using an LPT, this study aimed to determine the reliability and sensitivity of countermovement jump (CMJ) variables in road cyclists. Ten national-level male road cyclists performed three maximal CMJ trials twice per week for two weeks, with an LPT measuring force, power, velocity, repetition rate, vertical distance, and concentric time from each trial. Using the mean and best CMJ results from three trials per testing session, the upper limit 90% confidence interval for the coefficient of variation (CV) and smallest worthwhile change (SWC) determined inter-day and -week reliability (CV ≤ 10%) and sensitivity (acceptable sensitivity = CV ≤ SWC) for CMJ variables. Mean power and force, velocity (mean and peak), vertical distance (VD), and concentric time had acceptable inter-day and -week reliability when using either the mean or best CMJ results (CV upper limit 90% confidence interval range = 3.54-10.13%). Moreover, the CV and SWC were typically lower when based on the mean rather than the best of three CMJ trials. Lastly, poor sensitivity (CV > SWC) was evident for all CMJ variables. CMJ-derived mean power and force, velocity (peak and mean), VD, and concentric time have acceptable inter-day and -week reliability when assessed via an LPT in national-level road cyclists. When using an LPT, sports scientists should consider that, while they typically have poor sensitivity, the reliability of CMJ-derived variables improves when expressed as the mean of three trials in national-level road cyclists.

What Does It Take to Become a Professional Cyclist? A Laboratory-Based Longitudinal Analysis in Competitive Young Riders.

Laboratory-based indicators are commonly used for performance assessment in young cyclists. However, evidence supporting the use of these indicators mostly comes from cross-sectional research, and their validity as predictors of potential future performance remains unclear. We aimed to assess the role of laboratory variables for predicting transition from U23 (under 23 y) to professional category in young cyclists. Sixty-five U23 male road cyclists (19.6 [1.5]y) were studied. Endurance (maximal graded test and simulated 8-min time trial [TT]), muscle strength/power (squat, lunge, and hip thrust), and body composition (assessed with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry) indicators were determined. Participants were subsequently followed and categorized attending to whether they had transitioned ("Pro") or not ("Non-Pro") to the professional category during the study period. The median follow-up period was 3years. Pro cyclists (n = 16) showed significantly higher values than Non-Pro riders (n = 49) for ventilatory thresholds, peak power output, peak oxygen uptake, and TT performance (all P < .05, effect size > 0.69) and lower levels of fat mass and bone mineral content/density (P < .05, effect size > 0.63). However, no significant differences were found for muscle strength/power indicators (P > .05, effect size < 49). The most accurate individual predictor was TT performance (overall predictive value = 76% for a cutoff value of 5.6W·kg-1). However, some variables that did not reach statistical significance in univariate analyses contributed significantly to a multivariate model (R2 = .79, overall predictive value = 94%). Although different "classic" laboratory-based endurance indicators can predict the potential of reaching the professional category in U23 cyclists, a practical indicator such as 8-minute TT performance showed the highest prediction accuracy.

Analysis of training loads in Polish adolescent road cyclists in the preparatory period and their effects on physical fitness

Background: Road cycling is one of the most extreme endurance sports. Professional road cyclists typically train ~20 hours per week and cover ~600 km a week. The longest 1-day race in men’s cycling can be up to 300 km while the longest multiple-stage races can last up to 21 days. Twenty to seventy accelerations are performed during a race, exceeding maximal aerobic power. Training is a crucial component of athletes’ preparation for competitions. Therefore, strong emphasis should be on recording the applied training loads and monitoring how they influence aerobic and anaerobic fitness, as well as performance. The aim of the study was to analyze the training loads in the preparatory period and their effects on aerobic and anaerobic fitness in adolescent road cyclists. Materials and Methods: The study involved 23 highly trained/national elite male road cyclists. Of them, 16 athletes (age: 16.21.1 years; training experience: 5.02.1 years) fully completed all components of the study. Aerobic fitness was measured using cardiopulmonary exercise testing (graded exercise test to exhaustion), while anaerobic fitness was evaluated using the 30-second modified Wingate anaerobic test. Each recorded training session time was distributed across training and activity forms as well as intensity zones. Results: The endurance training form used in the preparatory period was characterized by low-volume (~7.7h×wk-1), nonpolarised (median polarization index 0.15) pyramidal intensity distribution (zone1~68%; zone2~26%; zone3~1% total training volume). Endurance (specific and non-specific) and strength training forms accounted for ~95% and ~5% (respectively) of the total training time. Conclusion: Low-volume, non-polarised pyramidal intensity distribution training is probably not an effective stimulus for improving physical fitness in adolescent road cyclists. Disregarding high-intensity exercises in training programs for adolescent cyclists may result in stagnation or deterioration of physical fitness.

Cumulative pre-cooling methods do not enhance cycling performance in tropical climate.

The main objective of this study was to investigate the effect of mixed cooling techniques (combination of internal and external strategies, with and without menthol) during warm-up for a time trial in tropical climate. Seven heat-acclimatized trained male road cyclists participated in three experimental sessions consisting of 20-min cycling performances on a velodrome track in ecological hot and humid conditions (Guadeloupe, French West Indies; WBGT: 27.64±0.27°C; relative humidity: 76.43±2.19%), preceded by a standardized 30-min warm-up and the ingestion of cold menthol water (1) with a cooling vest soaked in ice water (ICE-VEST), (2) with a cooling vest soaked in ice menthol water (MEN-VEST), and (3) without a vest (NO-VEST). Cycling performance (total distance, distance traveled per 2-min block), physiological parameters (core body temperature recorded, heart rate) and perceptions (exertion, thermal comfort, thermal sensation) were assessed. No between-condition differences were found for physiological parameters, the total covered distance or the distance traveled per 2-min block. However, distance traveled per 2-min decreased with time (p = 0.03), with no difference between conditions, suggesting a variation in pace during the cycling performance trial (e.g., mean±SD: 1321±48.01m at T2; 1308±46.20m at T8, 1284±78.38m at T14, 1309±76.29m at T20). No between-condition differences were found for perception of exertion, thermal comfort and thermal sensation during the warm-up (11.83±3.34; 2.58±1.02; 4.39±0.94, respectively) and the performance (17.85±0.99; 2.70±1.25; 5.20±1.20, respectively) but the pairwise comparisons within condition revealed a significant increase of TS values from T0 (4.57±1.13) to T20 (6.00±0.58) only in NO-VEST condition (p = 0.04). The absence of modification of thermal sensation at the end of the cycling test under the mixed conditions (ICE-VEST and MEN-VEST) suggests a beneficial effect of wearing a cooling vest on thermal sensation although it had no effect on performance.

Bone Mineral Density in Mountain, Road Cyclists and Untrained Controls: Exercise, Diet and Hormones

ABSTRACT Purpose: The aim of the study was to compare bone mineral density (BMD) in the lumbar spine (LSBMD) and the femoral neck (FBMD) in male road cyclists (RC n = 39), mountain cyclists (MC n = 30) and controls (C n = 27) and to determine the factors associated with BMD in the same group of participants. Methods: BMD, fat mass (FM) and fat-free mass (FFM) were measured using DXA. Calcium intake (Cal), exercise energy expenditure (EEE) and energy availability (EA) were assessed using self-reported questionnaires. Samples for circulating hormones were also obtained. VO2max was estimated by a cycloergometric test. Results: After adjustment for body mass, in cyclists LSBMD (RC 0.98 ± 0.12; MC 0.98 ± 0.10 g/cm2) was significantly lower than in C (1.11 ± 0.10; p < .001), while FBMD resulted in no significant difference in cyclists compared to C (p = 0.213). EA (kcal/FFM/day) was different in cyclists and in C (p < .05). In C, EEE and EA were positively associated with LSBMD (R = 0.561, R = 0.656, respectively, p < .01), whereas only EA was associated with FBMD (R = 0.554, p < .05); a positive association between EA and FBMD was found in MC (R = 0.464, p < .05). A negative relationship between VO2max and LSBMD in RC (R = -0.418, p < .05) and a positive one between EEE and LSBMD in MC were found (R = 0.605, p < .001). CaI, free testosterone and cortisol were unrelated to BMD. Conclusion: Both the RC and MC had lower LSBMD than C, whereas no difference was found between the two groups of cyclists. The factors associated with BMD are manifold, vary in relation to the measurement site and are likely different in RC, MC and C.

The relationship between bone parameters, body composition, and lower extremity strength in road cyclists.

This study aimed to compare the relationships between bone and body composition parameters, and isometric maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) force of knee extensor (KE) muscles in road cyclists and untrained controls. Twelve male road cyclists and 12 controls aged 20-34 years participated. The isometric MVC force of the KE muscles was assessed by a custom-made dynamometer. Bone mineral content (BMC), bone mineral density (BMD), and body composition were assessed using Dual-Energy X-ray Absorptiometry. No differences were found in body mass, lean body mass, leg lean mass, MVC, whole body, and leg BMD and BMC between cyclists and controls. Controls had a significantly greater (P<0.001) body mass index (BMI), whole body (P<0.01), and leg fat (P<0.001) mass than athletes. In road cyclists, BMC correlated positively with body mass (r=0.73; P<0.01) and BMI (r=0.65; P<0.05), body (r=0.85; P<0.001) and leg lean mass (r=0.81; P<0.001); BMD correlated positively with lean body mass (r=0.60; P<0.05), leg lean mass (r=0.65 and r=0.60; P<0.05). MVC of KE muscles correlated positively with bone parameters (P<0.01) and lean mass (P<0.05) only in controls. Regular cycling training was associated with lower BMI, and body and leg fat mass. There were no significant differences in bone parameters, body and leg lean mass, and isometric MVC force of KE muscle variables between road cyclists and controls. In road cyclists, bone parameters are associated with body mass, and body and leg lean mass, but not with the isometric strength of KE muscles.

Photobiomodulation does not improve anaerobic performance in well-trained cyclists.

To determine if photobiomodulation (PBM) has ergogenic effects on the anaerobic performance of well-trained cyclists. Fifteen healthy male road or mountain bike cyclists participated in this randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled, crossover study. Athletes were randomly assigned to receive photobiomodulation (630nm, 4.6J/cm2, 6J per point, 16 points, PBM session) or placebo intervention (PLA session) in the first session. The athletes then performed a 30-s Wingate test to determine mean and peak average power, relative power, mean and peak velocity, mean and peak RPM, fatigue index, total distance, time to peak power, explosive strength, and power drop. After 48h, athletes returned to the laboratory for the crossover intervention. The repeated-measures ANOVA test followed by Bonferroni post hoc test or Friedman test with Dunn's post hoc test (p < 0.05), and Cohen's d statistic were used for comparisons. Performance in the Wingate test was not significantly different (p > 0.05) between PBM and PLA sessions for any variable. Only a small effect size was detected for time to peak power (-0.40; 1.11 to 0.31) and explosive strength (0.38; -0.34 to 1.09). We conclude that irradiation with red light, under a low energy density, does not promote ergogenic effects on the anaerobic performance of cycling athletes.

Functional Threshold Power Field Test Exceeds Laboratory Performance in Junior Road Cyclists.

Abstract Vinetti, G, Rossi, H, Bruseghini, P, Corti, M, Ferretti, G, Piva, S, Taboni, A, and Fagoni, N. The functional threshold power field test exceeds laboratory performance in junior road cyclists. J Strength Cond Res 37(9): 1815–1820, 2023—The functional threshold power (FTP) field test is appealing for junior cyclists, but it was never investigated in this age category, and even in adults, there are few data on FTP collected in field conditions. Nine male junior road cyclists (16.9 ± 0.8 years) performed laboratory determination of maximal aerobic power (MAP), 4-mM lactate threshold (P4mM), critical power (CP), and the curvature constant (W′), plus a field determination of FTP as 95% of the average power output during a 20-minute time trial in an uphill road. The level of significance was set at p &lt; 0.05. Outdoor FTP (269 ± 34 W) was significantly higher than CP (236 ± 24 W) and P4mM (233 ± 23 W). The of the field FTP test (66.9 ± 4.4 ml·kg−1·min−1) was significantly higher than the assessed in the laboratory (62.7 ± 3.7 ml·kg−1·min−1). Functional threshold power was correlated, in descending order, with MAP (r = 0.95), P4mM (r = 0.94), outdoor and indoor (r = 0.93 and 0.93, respectively), CP (r = 0.84), and W′ (r = 0.66). It follows that in junior road cyclists, the FTP field test was feasible and related primarily to aerobic endurance parameters and secondarily, but notably, to W′. However, the FTP field test significantly exceeded all laboratory performance tests. When translating laboratory results to outdoor uphill conditions, coaches and sport scientists should consider this discrepancy, which may be particularly enhanced in this cycling age category.

Association Rule Mining for Island and Mainland Road Crash Injuries in Greece

The objective of this paper is to implement association rule mining in order to identify the underlying patterns in road crash injuries recorded in Greece, after separating them into subsets concerning the mainland and the island areas. To that end, an analysis of disaggregated data from the Hellenic Statistical Authority data file for killed, seriously and slightly injured road users was implemented for 2017-2019. The apriori rule was developed and a variety of association rules were obtained. Results indicated a strong association or concurrent presence of the contributory factors at various percentages in both mainland and island road crash injuries. It was also revealed that clear weather, urban area and male road users were dominant interconnected conditions that simultaneously exist in injury crashes.

Effects of increasing physical load and fatigue on the biomechanics of elite cyclists

In this study, we propose to expand the research on the biomechanics of cycling, including changes caused by riding at different intensity levels and fatigue, similar to training or competition. Six well-trained, experienced male road cyclists (27.17 ± 3.89 years; 180.41 ± 5.31 cm; 75.23 ± 4.91 kg) with 8.3 ± 4.85 years of (professional) experience in road cycling underwent a lactate test, starting with 100 W and an increment of 20 W every 3 minutes until total exhaustion. Afterward, subjects drove an increment of 50 W every 3 minutes, starting again with 100 W and ending with 250 W (post-test). Changes in position were recorded via 2D video analysis. We found that with higher power output relative to the individual anaerobic threshold (IAT), the joint angles changed. No significant differences were present for the pre–post comparisons of the examined angles, which should map the influence of fatigue (p &gt; .05). Future research should try to observe cycling movement in more realistic settings, such as cycling-specific fatigue or during an outdoor ride, as the biomechanics under these conditions are of particularly high relevance for the athletes. Overall, the results suggest performing bike fitting more individually and in more realistic situations or setting.

Does Altitude of Birth Influence the Performance of National- to Elite-Level Colombian Cyclists?

To determine whether the altitude of birth/childhood influences the values in peak power output (PPO) and estimated maximum oxygen uptake (estVO2max) in male Colombian road cyclists of different performance levels. This study also aimed to determine whether cyclists born at high altitudes tend to be more successful. Eighty riders aged between 17 and 22years of 3 performance levels (U23 world-class level, WC, n = 8; U23 national level, N23, n = 41; junior national level, J, n = 31) and 3 altitude levels (<800m, low; 800-2000m, moderate; >2000m, high) performed an ergocycle maximal incremental test to exhaustion at an altitude of 2570m. Altogether, while cyclists born at an altitude >2000m represented ∼50% of the analyzed sample, there was a significantly higher proportion (84%) of these cyclists who had participated as professionals in a Grand Tour (χ2[1, N = 80] = 4.58, P < .05). Riders of the low group had lower values of PPO and estVO2max than cyclists of moderate and high altitudes, while no differences were noted between moderate- and high-altitude groups. In N23, PPO and estVO2max were lower in the low- than in the moderate-altitude group, while in the J cyclists, PPO and estVO2max were lower in the low-altitude compared with both moderate- and high-altitude groups. Among the cyclists tested at altitude in junior and U23, there is an overrepresentation of individuals who reached an elite level and were born at a high altitude (>2000m). As no clear differences were observed between moderate- and high-altitude cyclists, the higher prevalence of elite cyclists in the latter group may originate from various-still unclear-mechanisms.

Anthropometric characteristics according to the role performed by World Tour road cyclists for their team

ABSTRACT Certain anthropometric characteristics are required for athletes to successfully perform in elite endurance sports. The present study aims to analyse the anthropometric characteristics of professional cyclists according to their specialty. Anthropometric measurements were conducted of the body composition of 76 male professional road cyclists in line with International Society for Advancement of Kinanthropometry protocol. Fat mass did not differ (p > 0.05) between climbers, all-rounders and flat specialists, although the following anthropometric variables did differ according to the role played within the team (p < 0.05): Body mass (climbers: 63.8 ± 3.6, all-rounders: 68.8 ± 5.3, flat specialists: 74.5 ± 5.6 kg) skeletal body mass (climbers: 29.7 ± 1.6, all-rounders: 31.4 ± 1.9, flat specialists: 33.5 ± 2.4 kg); body surface area (climbers: 1.78 ± 0.07, all-rounders: 1.89 ± 0.10, flat specialists: 1.96 ± 0.1 m2); frontal area (climbers: 0.33 ± 0.01, all-rounders: 0.35 ± 0.02, flat specialists: 0.36 ± 0.02 m2). Anthropometric characteristics differ between world-class cyclists depending on their specialty. These differences could influence performance in relation to different types of road cycling competitions. The present study identified characteristics that could be used by coaches to evaluate their athletes in the context of elite or professional road cycling. Highlights Normative reference values of a large sample of professional cyclists of the highest category are presented. Anthropometric characteristics differ between world-class cyclists depending on their specialty. Body mass, BMI, height and skeletal muscle mass are determining factors to determine the role of the cyclist.

Does Cycling Training Reduce Quality of Functional Movement Motor Patterns and Dynamic Postural Control in Adolescent Cyclists? A Pilot Study.

The aim of this study was to assess whether cycling training may influence quality of functional movement patterns and dynamic postural control. We also sought to determine if the Functional Movement Screen and Lower Quarter Y-balance tests could be predictive of injury risk among adolescent road cyclists. Twenty-three male road cyclists, aged 15–18 years, were involved in the study. Quality of functional movement patterns was assessed using the Functional Movement Screen test (FMS). Dynamic postural control was evaluated using the Lower Quarter Y-balance test (YBT-LQ). Information on injury occurrence was collected through a retrospective survey. The results showed the highest percentage of scores equalling 0 and 1 (>30% in total) in two FMS component tests: the hurdle step and trunk stability push-up. The results also demonstrated a low injury predictive value of the Functional Movement Screen (cut-off <14/21 composite score) and the Lower Quarter Y-balance test (cut-off <94% composite score and >4 cm reach distance asymmetry) in adolescent road cyclists. The most important information obtained from this study is that youth road cyclists may have functional deficits within the lumbo-pelvic-hip complex and the trunk, while neither the FMS nor the YBT-LQ test are not recommended for injury risk screening in cyclists.

Patterns of energy availability of free-living athletes display day-to-day variability that is not reflected in laboratory-based protocols: Insights from elite male road cyclists

ABSTRACT The physiological effects of low energy availability (EA) have been studied using a homogenous daily EA pattern in laboratory settings. However, whether this daily EA pattern represents those of free-living athletes and is therefore ecologically valid is unknown. To investigate this, we assessed daily exercise energy expenditure, energy intake and EA in 10 free-living elite male road cyclists (20 min Mean Maximal Power: 5.27 ± 0.25 W · kg−1) during 7 consecutive days of late pre-season training. Energy intake was measured using the remote-food photography method and exercise energy expenditure estimated from cycling crank-based power-metres. Seven-day mean ± SD energy intake and exercise energy expenditure was 57.9 ± 10.4 and 38.4 ± 8.6 kcal · kg FFM−1 · day−1, respectively. EA was 19.5 ± 9.1 kcal · kg FFM−1 · day−1. Within-participants correlation between daily energy intake and exercise energy expenditure was .62 (95% CI: .43 – .75; P < .001), and .60 (95% CI: .41 – .74; P < .001) between carbohydrate intake and exercise energy expenditure. However, energy intake only partially compensated for exercise energy expenditure, increasing 210 kcal · day−1 per 1000 kcal · day−1 increase in expenditure. EA patterns displayed marked day-to-day fluctuation (range: −22 to 76 kcal · kg FFM−1 · day−1). The validity of research using homogenous low EA patterns therefore requires further investigation.

Comparative analysis of endurance, strength and body composition indicators in professional, under-23 and junior cyclists

Purpose: To compare endurance, strength and body composition indicators between cyclists of three different competition age categories. Methods: Fifty-one male road cyclists classified as either junior (n = 13, age 16.4 ± 0.5 years), under-23 [(U23), n = 24, 19.2 ± 1.3 years] or professional (n = 14, 26.1 ± 4.8 years) were studied. Endurance (assessed through a maximal incremental test and an 8-minute time-trial), strength/power (assessed through incremental loading tests for the squat, lunge and hip thrust exercises) and body composition (assessed through dual energy X-ray absorptiometry) were determined on three different testing sessions. Results: U23 and, particularly professional, cyclists attained significantly (p < 0.05) higher values than juniors for most of the analyzed endurance indicators [time-trial performance, maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max), peak power output (PPO), respiratory compensation point (RCP), and ventilatory threshold (VT)]. Significant differences (p < 0.05) between U23 and professionals were also found for time-trial performance, PPO and VT, but not for other markers such as VO2max or RCP. Professional cyclists also showed significantly (p < 0.05) lower relative fat mass and higher muscle mass levels than U23 and, particularly, juniors. No consistent differences between age categories were found for muscle strength/power indicators. Conclusion: Endurance (particularly time-trial performance, PPO and VT) and body composition (fat and muscle mass) appear as factors that best differentiate between cyclists of different age categories, whereas no consistent differences are found for muscle strength/power. These findings might help in performance prediction and/or talent identification and may aid in guiding coaches in the design of training programs focused on improving those variables that appear more determinant.