Male Intellectuals Research Articles

The Gendered Construction of the Japanese Language-Learning Boom in Postcolonial Korea

ABSTRACT This article analyses the print news media’s gendered representation of Japanese language-learners in postcolonial Korea. It focuses on why young women, notably yŏdaesaeng (female college students) and kisaeng (sex workers in the tourism or entertainment industry), were identified as the main learners of Japanese. I argue that male media elites could not respond to the growing demand for learning the Japanese language in terms of the anti-Japanese nationalistic framework, which equated Korean nationalism to anti-Japanese sentiment. Instead, they attributed postcolonial Korea’s failure to create and sustain a monolingual state to female subjects’ sentimental, sexually promiscuous desire to learn Japanese. Throughout the article, I argue that public commentaries by male intellectuals on Korean women’s Japanese language-learning, which were widely circulated in the media, reinscribed language ideologies of women and bilingualism. This perpetuated patriarchal gender relations, as male nationalists sought to manage tensions arising from Japan’s continued economic and cultural influence, despite the ‘official’ normalisation of relations between Korea and the former colonial power.

1920~1930년대 남의집살이 여성들의 처우와 인권 문제

This paper explores the discussion on labor rights and human rights for domestic workers during colonial period, revisioning it as the origin of the discussion that has garnered recent attention in Korea.
 During the Japanese colonial period when domestic workers first emerged, it brought up social issues regarding their treatment with the angle of labor right, abreast of increasing number of the Korean workers employed in Japanese households. From the mid-1920s onwards, it became noticeable that Korean women, often referred to as 'Omoni', were employed as domestic workers in Japanese households. At that time, Korean media portrayed such inter-racial employment negatively, urging Korean families to treat domestic workers well to keep them in Korean homes. However, despite these negative perceptions, predominantly expressed by Korean male intellectuals in the media, the reality revealed a preference among Korean women for working in Japanese homes due to higher wages and better working conditions.
 While discourse on the treatment of domestic workers persisted, leading to the replacement of titles like 'Eomum' with 'Sikmo (housekeeper)' to mitigate lower-class connotations, there was a critical limitation in the discussion.
 Specifically, it largely overlooked the plight of underage girls, who comprised the majority of domestic workers at the time, neglecting the genuine human rights issues surrounding them. Such historical traces echoes with the general flaw in discussions on domestic services in today, which still fail to adequately represent the voices of workers in the real world in policy discussions and to protect their rights.

나카지마 아쓰시의 남양문학에서 나타나는 신체와 문학

Atsushi Nakajima's South Seas genre of literature has been interpreted as a critique of imperialist male intellectuals or, more often than not, as an attempt to understand the colonized. However, in order to clarify this, it is necessary to look at it through the experience of the space of the South Sea and the concept of the “body” that is constructed through the collision of multiple forces. If we look at Atsushi Nakajima's South Seas genre from this perspective, we can see that the imperialist male intellectual's perspective is still present in Nakajima, but the bodies he depicts do not only reflect the primitiveness or purity of existing discourses. First of all, Nakajima Atsushi's modernity is that he sees the body as a ‘social thing’. Under the notion that the body is constructed through the collision of various social forces, purity and primordiality at the individual level become relative. From this perspective, Atsushi Nakajima connects the physical to “habit” and suggests the possibility of a new body. The body constituted by habits becomes socially constructed through the medium or concept of ‘habit-writing on the body’. Nakajima also presupposes that literature and culture are constructed by the same logic. This notion of being constructed is the negation of absolutes, and as such, it leads to the limits and possibilities of literature (culture) and fiction as a social “habit” that connects to the otherness of the unknowable (as opposed to a singularity of purity or primordiality) and reconstructs the unknowable. This is perhaps the point at which Nakajima Atsushi's literature takes on a kind of modernity that distinguishes it from other South Seas genre of literature at that time.

Reflecting on love and sexual discourses and becoming knowledge contributors: Chinese women’s critical reading on The Ladies’ Journal

ABSTRACT With the growth of women’s periodicals in China during the early twentieth century, women started to assume an unprecedentedly conspicuous role in print culture as both readers and essay writers. Targeting well-educated young women of the new era, the leading women’s periodical, The Ladies’ Journal (Funü zazhi 婦女雜誌), can function as the precious prism to examine the critical reading practice of young urban women of the time. This paper investigates how women’s critical reading reflections on heterosexual love and gender relations that were manifested in the journal facilitated the formation of female subjectivity through women readers’ engagement with new gender norms and knowledge. It argues that the introduction and promulgation of literary works and feminist ideologies concerning women’s individuality embodied male editors’ concern on women’s empowerment, while also serving as their normative configurations of new knowledge surrounding womanhood and social progress. But women were not deprived of subjectivity when encountering these prescriptive knowledge. The public reading of texts that inspired young educated women to reflect on love and marriage displayed female readers’ feminist consciousness, conceptualizing women’s agency in providing alternatives for male intellectuals’ vision and contributing to the construction of public knowledge through their own discursive efforts.

Women’s Work: Black Women’s Movement through Political Space

Women’s Work: Black Women’s Movement through Political Space Kaiama L. Glover (bio) Keisha N. Blain and Tiffany M. Gill, eds. To Turn the Whole World Over: Black Women and Internationalism. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2019. 280 pp. ISBN 9780252042317 (cl.); 9780252051166 (ebook). Tiffany N. Florvil. Mobilizing Black Germany: Afro-German Women and the Making of a Transnational Movement. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2020. 296 pp. ISBN 9780252043512 (cl.); 9780252052392 (ebook). Annette K. Joseph-Gabriel. Reimagining Liberation: How Black Women Transformed Citizenship in the French Empire. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2020. 260 pp. ISBN 9780252042935 (cl.); 9780252051791 (ebook). Quiet as it’s kept, Black women’s work—across oceans and national borders, around kitchen tables and quilting circles, on stages and tour buses, in courthouses and classrooms—has long been a driving force in movements toward social justice on both the grandest and the most intimate scales. Three recent volumes of Black feminist scholarship have sought, successfully, to give voice to such work—to make Black women’s engagements in twentieth century freedom struggles more visible and more legible within the global historical record. Keisha N. Blain and Tiffany M. Gill’s edited collection To Turn the Whole World Over: Black Women and Internationalism, Annette K. Joseph-Gabriel’s Reimagining Liberation: How Black French Women Transformed Citizenship in the French Empire, and Tiffany N. Florvil’s Mobilizing Black Germany: Afro-German Women and the Making of a Transnational Movement are each committed to excavating unheard voices and to identifying Black women’s political communities unbound by the geopolitical borders of the nation-state. All three do the necessary work of affirming such communities retrospectively—that is, of making explicit and coherent in the present the exceptional phenomena that emerged dynamically and organically in the past. While a common motivation for these three volumes is redress—the setting right of a historical record that has been indifferent to or has even actively silenced Black women’s work—these studies do not dwell in a space of reaction or response to that fundamental injustice. Rather, these are works of storytelling and revelation, richly researched and insightful. They take as given the signal importance of recognizing Black women’s contributions to building the postwar world. The inquiries and discoveries that animate every one of these books comprise an adamant unsilencing [End Page 142] of the past. Each of these works presents a series of deep dives into alternative archives and proposes expansive conceptions of the textual, illuminating the histories of a diverse set of protagonists and establishing an inclusive canon of internationalist Black women thinkers, writers, performers, and other social actors. Each of them insists on the gendered and racialized specificity of the obstacles facing the women they bring to the fore, while also fully acknowledging both the intersectional alliances and the intramural conflicts that shaped these women’s visions of the future. Blain and Gill’s volume, To Turn the Whole World Over, brings together an impressive cohort of scholars whose research concerns the internationalist preoccupations and perspectives of Black US-American women in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Without denying the impact or the presence of Black male intellectuals and political figures during this period, the editors compellingly establish Black internationalism as women’s work. Each of the eleven essays articulates the “gendered contours of black internationalism” and highlights the idiosyncratic challenges and expectations Black women contended with as they entered the fray of anti-racist and human rights activism (1). The book is anchored in the geopolitical space of the United States, from which it looks outward to Europe, Africa, Asia, and other parts of the Americas. As such, the matter of mobility—as a condition of possibility for Black women and (consequently) as a threat to the Euro-North American nation-state—is central to the contributors’ collective project. The volume’s first section, “Travel and Migrations,” considers how Black women’s mobility presented opportunities for individual and collective self-fashioning that pointedly implicated sub-Saharan Africa and its diasporas. Both Brandon Byrd’s and Kim Gallon’s essays bring us to historical moments when Haiti mattered crucially to Black US-American internationalism. Byrd chronicles...

Film und Kino als Spiegel. Siegfried Kracauers Filmschriften aus Deutschland und Frankreich by Viola Rühse

Reviewed by: Film und Kino als Spiegel. Siegfried Kracauers Filmschriften aus Deutschland und Frankreich by Viola Rühse Frederic Ponten Film und Kino als Spiegel. Siegfried Kracauers Filmschriften aus Deutschland und Frankreich. By Viola Rühse. Berlin: De Gruyter, 2022. Pp. 328. Paper €69.95. ISBN 978-3110705751. The main topic of Viola Rühse's book is Siegfried Kracauer (1889–1966) and his early occupation with film as a journalist in the 1920s and early 1930s in Frankfurt and Berlin, as well as during his exile as a freelance writer in Paris from 1933 to 1941. His escape to the USA after the German attack against France serves as a biographical endpoint of Rühse's study, even though Kracauer's later prominent book publications on film, such as From Caligari to Hitler (1947) and Theory of Film (1960), serve as a necessary horizon to understanding both continuities and ruptures in his work, most of which has been edited in the important Werkausgabe (2004–2012). The book neither aims to give an entirely new picture of Kracauer's early work, nor does it attempt to radically reorient views on Weimar cinema or 1920s film theory and largely follows in its general assessments the standard literature on the topic by Inka [End Page 167] Mülder-Bach, Miriam Hansen, and Helmut Stalder. In fact, the book's scope is pleasantly modest, as it promises to direct attention to some of the—so far—overlooked or underresearched Kracauer texts (and drafts) and their contexts. This leads Rühse, by examining archival materials in Kracauer's Nachlass and recently digitized collections of early twentieth-century journals and newspapers (19), to trace—with surprising intensity and depth—not only motifs in Kracauer's writing, but also social history, cultural history, media history, architectural history, and art history. The book sets off to a slow start: the introduction (chapter one) develops the topic of the book and mainly provides the state of the art of Kracauer research; the writing, particularly of the first pages, is unfortunately hindered by stylistic infelicities and would have benefitted from further copy-editing. The second chapter, the weakest of the seven chapters, highlights Kracauer's well-known reception of Karl Grune's film Die Straße (1923) in several publications. An excursus however, "die Analyse des Publikationskontextes des Aufsatzes 'Der Künstler in dieser Zeit'" (52), a text first published for the Jewish-German journal Der Morgen, adds an important piece to the puzzle of Kracauer's complicated relationship to his Jewish family background and the religious motifs in his thought. Chapter three dives into the social history of leftist film criticism and situates Kracauer's work on the spectrum of early political writing about film in Weimar Germany and shows for the first time the main quality of Rühse's book, which lies in its meticulous reconstruction of so far marginalized figures and voices that are in direct or indirect dialog with Kracauer's work. The same is true for the author's historicization of Kracauer's famous series of texts titled "Die kleinen Ladenmädchen gehen ins Kino" (1927). Rühse is able to reconstruct—against Kracauer's stereotypical views of the young unmarried women working in low-paying sales jobs—a perspective of these women that entails far more agency and film critical competencies than the common view of the "shop girl," held by most male intellectuals in the 1920s. Kracauer himself, as Rühse points out (99), arrived only later at a more nuanced position in his article "Mädchen im Beruf" (1932). Chapter four, the strongest chapter of the book, takes on Kracauer, the trained architect-turned-journalist, and his perspective on historic cinematic spaces. Rühse provides important contextualizations of the history of cinema architecture and its social history for Kracauer's famous essay "Kult der Zerstreuung" (1926) and his article "Kino in der Münzstraße" (1932). Rühse sheds light on how to situate Kracauer's writings on the pompous UFA Lichtspielpaläste, and on the role of cinemas frequented by the working class, who were threatened by unemployment after the financial crisis in 1929. Chapter five presents the largely...

Gwangju and the 1980s film movement: the representation of the minjung in Oh! My Dream Country

ABSTRACT This article explores early cinematic representations of the Gwangju Uprising in the films The Announcement of Mr. Kant (1987, Kim Tae-yeong), Hwangmuji (1988, Kim Tae-yeong), and Oh! My Dream Country (1989, Jangsan-gotmae), with particular attention paid to the final film. These three 16 mm fiction works are all ‘independent films’ made within the context of the emancipator activism of the minjung movement in the 1980s South Korea. This study demonstrates how these three films can be categorized as so called ‘minjung films’ that refer to the ‘independent’ works devoted to the ‘independence’ of the people from the authoritarian South Korean state and the political interference of the United States. I also analyse how Oh! My Dream Country is particularly representative of minjung cinema when considering the collaborative mode in which it was produced and its treatment of the Gwangju Uprising as a pro-democracy struggle. Finally, through a textual analysis of Oh! My Dream Country, I reassess the historical significances of these three early Gwangju films through the lens of gender. I discuss how the minjung, particularly in Gwangju, were problematically feminized as collective victims in the 1980s by the discourse of anti-American nationalism, which was primarily constructed by male intellectuals.

Male Intellectuals Gender Narratives in Chinese Left-Wing Films of the 1930s

This paper analyzes the gender narratives in left-wing films produced during 1930s through the feminist perspective. Specifically, it explores male intellectuals gender narratives in these films and how these narratives act as an ideological resource that was instrumental in constructing the subject identity of the proletariat and the national identity under the background of Second Sino-Japanese War. Unlike male intellectuals that were depicted as the propagator of new ideas and the torchbearers of the masses during 1910s-1920s, male intellectuals in the left-wing films of 1930s predominantly featured as playing second fiddle to the proletariat and their dominant roles in the New Culture Movement began to diminish. Subsequently, male intellectuals within left wing cinema were featured as a group that needed to be changed and educated by the proletariat and too, were dependent on the proletariat for their cultural and moral liberation.

Male Intellectuals Gender Narratives in Chinese Left-Wing Films of the 1930s

Male Intellectuals Gender Narratives in Chinese Left-Wing Films of the 1930s

Representasi Maskulinitas Tokoh Utama dalam Film Persahabatan Bagai Kepompong 2021

The research aims to illustrate and understand the meaning of the representation of masculinity of the main character in the film "Friendship Like a Cocoon" directed by Sentot Sahid. This research is qualitative research using primary and secondary data collection techniques obtained from reference books, scientific journals, and articles. The study used an analysis of Roland Barthes' Semiotics data that had three levels of tagging: denotation, connotation, and myth that focused on seven characteristics of masculinity expressed by Janet Saltzman Chafetz, namely: 1) Male Physical Appearance, 2) Male Functional, 3) Male Sexual, 4) Male Emotions, 5) Male Intellectuals, 6) Male Interpersonal, and 7) Male Personal Character.Keywords: Film, Janet Saltzman Chafetz's Concept of Masculinity, Semiotics Roland Barthes.

Conflicting Masculinities in Ha Jin’s Waiting: Talented Scholars and Ruthless Men of Action in China’s Mao and Post-Mao Eras

Abstract As a highly acclaimed novel for which Ha Jin won the U.S. National Book Award in 1999, Waiting covers the period from the early 1960s to the early 1980s, encompassing the Cultural Revolution through the early reform era. Its oft-noted central concern is the suppression of emotional life, and by extension humanity, in the totalitarian climate of Mao’s regime. This article offers a new reading, which foregrounds the novel’s use of masculinities as a central theme and driver of the plot. Through the prism of Kam Louie’s wen-wu (literary accomplishment – military prowess) dyad, this study focuses on Ha Jin’s critique of the socialist-era trajectories of two historically prominent Chinese male character types: the intellectually-oriented man of book learning and the physically-driven man of action. It shows how Waiting illuminates the conditions underlying a pervasive social and psychological paralysis of male intellectuals and the contrasting empowerment of a predatory class of nouveau riche entrepreneurs.

Modern Women Intellectuals and the Sandino Rebellion: Carmen Sobalvarro and Aura Rostand

Achieving global fame in 1927, Nicaragua’s General Augusto César Sandino came to symbolize and unite international solidarity movements against US imperialism by cultivating a sophisticated transnational intellectual network that encompassed communications, public relations, intelligence, provisions, volunteers, and fundraising. The participation of male public intellectuals in Sandino’s strategic communications is well documented, but the roles of intellectual women in the rebellion have not been appreciably explored to date. Bringing to light new archival research on the Nicaraguan poets and journalists Carmen Sobalvarro and Aura Rostand, this article examines how their gendered writing and public personae propagated both Sandino’s war and his legacy after his 1934 assassination. As part of an informal network of women intellectuals, Sobalvarro and Rostand played integral roles in Sandino’s public relations in Nicaragua and abroad. As Sandino has once again become a contested figure in light of Nicaragua’s oppressive Ortega-Murillo government, this recuperative cultural study also bears on present-day Nicaraguan political discourse.

Everybody’s Orient. Fragments of images from illustrated travel journals (nineteenth-century Milan)

ABSTRACT The article analyses the visions of the East which appear in some ‘popular’ illustrated journals in Milan during the second half of the 19th century, published by Emilio Treves and Edoardo Sonzogno. The accounts by male and female intellectuals, historians, diplomats, explorers, geographers and scientists, allow us to reconstruct an important dimension in the circulation of knowledge to what was a fairly wide reading public. These accounts reflect the political and cultural climate, characterised by the development of the geographical societies, cultural colonialism and so on. Lastly, they offer a window onto the cultural politics of these initiatives which, by harking back to the experience of the French illustrated journals,exploited developments in print technology to enrich the stories with compelling images.

Writing the Self, Creating Community: German Women Authors and the Literary Sphere, 1750–1850 ed. by Elisabeth Krimmer and Lauren Nossett

Reviewed by: Writing the Self, Creating Community: German Women Authors and the Literary Sphere, 1750–1850 ed. by Elisabeth Krimmer and Lauren Nossett Beth Ann Muellner Elisabeth Krimmer and Lauren Nossett, editors. Writing the Self, Creating Community: German Women Authors and the Literary Sphere, 1750–1850. Camden House, 2020. 319 pp. Cloth, $99.00; E-book, $24.99. This fascinating collection shifts focus away from the tendency of eighteenth-century women writers to understate their own literary contributions and toward an emphasis on direct and indirect influences on their creative processes. The editors’ succinct and informative introduction summarizes women’s literary production as shaped by education, class, familial and sociocultural ideology and norms, genres, themes, and the book trade. The challenge that male intellectuals presented in acknowledging women’s abilities highlights women’s need to consistently and creatively negotiate the literary marketplace. The volume’s three sections, “Writing a Community,” “Writing the Self,” and “Writing toward Emancipation,” reveal such strategies but also suggest how profoundly eighteenth-century definitions of gender complicate our understanding of women’s authorship. Three of the four essays in the first section focus on Sophie von La Roche, the first professional German woman writer. Monika Nenon sees a pedagogical program laid out for young women of all social classes in La Roche’s nonfictional writing, specifically the journal Pomona für Teutschlands Töchter (1783–84; Pomona for Germany’s daughters) and the epistolary travel book Journal einer Reise nach Frankreich (1787; Journal of a journey through France). Beyond La Roche’s engagement of her own daughters as audience, Nossett investigates the writer’s cultivation of herself as a “maternal literary authority” (46) who encourages reading [End Page 119] despite “risk and conflict” (50) as central to education. Angela Sanmann brings to the “seemingly docile medium of translation” (69) an analysis that reveals progressive, “emancipatory thrusts” (77) in Marie-Elisabeth de La Fite’s 1773 translation of La Roche’s Geschichte des Fräuleins von Sternheim (1771; The history of Lady Sophia Sternheim) into French. The translation counters male editors’ attempted intrusions into the text and serves as a key source for the 1776 English translation. The odd chapter here, though thematically fitting, is Ruth Dawson’s consideration of Catherine II’s literary collaborations with poet Polyxene Dilthey Büsching and writer Johanna Charlotte Unzer. If not for Dawson’s literary sleuthing, Büsching’s work with the two women would have remained invisible, as Büsching’s husband’s 1777 biography of his wife intended. The essays in the second section consider individual authors’ pushback against patriarchal censorship and silencing. In similar ghost stories—one by Benedikte Naubert and one by Sophie Albrecht—Sara Luly considers how the “doubling of the self ” (120) reflects women’s authorship and where censorship and ambiguous endings neutralize previous vilifications of the “gelehrte Frau,” or learned woman (120). Amy Jones reads “reverse vampirism” in Günderrode’s poem “Die Bande der Liebe” (1804; The bonds of love) as a response to an 1802 letter from Clemens Brentano that Jones refers to as the “Vampire Letter” (142). Instead of sucking blood from life, Günderrode’s gender-fluid poetic I breathes life into death, an essential rebirth that rejects eighteenth-century discourses that pathologize female writers. Karin Baumgartner recounts the struggle of Helmina von Chézy, granddaughter of Anna Louisa Karsch, to establish a women’s literary journal and to find her own voice in the chorus of surrounding talented women. Finally, Julie L. J. Koehler considers connections between creativity and domesticity, spheres deemed incompatible by male fairy-tale gatekeepers. Three collections by Märchenomas (fairy-tale-telling women) reveal links to French author Madame d’Aulnoy and present a female tradition of community over competition. The final section emphasizes unique emancipatory efforts of writing women, beginning with Margaretmary Daley’s analysis of the anonymously published Bildungsroman Agnes von Lilien (1796). The novel tells of an illegitimate daughter’s search for her biological parents on the cusp of her own marriage, which Daley sees mirroring Caroline von Wolzogen’s process to claim ownership of the novel. Renata Fuchs’s essay on Louise Aston and Fanny Lewald reminds us that their...

State of Nationalism (SoN): Nationalism and Gender

Until the 1970s, nationalism studies were almost exclusively about men: male intellectuals and politicians who defined the nation for the public, and male revolutionaries or soldiers who attained and protected the nation, often claiming full political citizenship in return for their services. However, the fact of their gender and the connection between national and masculine identities was hardly acknowledged, much less interrogated until the 1980s. Ironically, seeing men as men was largely the result of asking where the women were.

Aiming for a Middle Ground: Mary Hays’s Appeal to the Men of Great Britain and the Challenge of Perspective

In 1798, a year after the death of the renowned feminist Mary Wollstonecraft, her friend, the Unitarian writer and polemist, Mary Hays, authored her own tract on the subject of women’s liberation. Entitled Appeal to the Men of Great Britain in Behalf of Women, the publication was not intended to compete with Wollstonecraft’s fiery A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Hays wished to address the major societal issue of inequality between the sexes from a less adversarial angle. As opposed to Wollstonecraft, in her introduction, Mary Hays assumes a posture of humility when stating her ambition: ‘to restore female character to its dignity and independence.’ This paper discusses the rhetorical devices employed by Hays to modify the engrained ideas of her anticipated male readers. Her tract is divided into a set argumentative sequences in the shape of seven chapters. The first of these calls in question the reliance on the Scripture as a foundation for the acceptance of the male-female hierarchy. The second seeks to invalidate the conviction that the subjection of women’s in society could be condoned through rational causes. The third and fourth chapters give an overview of some major, misconceptions of men with regard to women’s capabilities. Chapter five and six illustrate plentiful examples of unsavoury realities of female existence. In the last chapter of the Appeal, Mary Hays delivers a set of exhortations and hopeful recommendations for effectuating a change. The overall aim of the paper is to identify and analyse Hays’s strategy for converting the opposite sex, not through revolutionary ferocity or meek supplications, but through constructive persuasiveness. In a concluding section some supportive male intellectuals are introduced to illustrate Hays’s achievement of a middle ground on which to communicate.

Pictures and Words: Allegorical and Persuasive Cartography

This paper aims to present a novel approach to map analysis, treating all ‘map-like’ drawings as icono-texts, according to premises postulated in modern cartographical theory by Brian Harley and his successors in this field. It is not just ‘deconstructing’ which takes place, but further interpretations are stimulated by probing questions not only of authorship (often unknown), but also of the social, cultural, and religious environment. Making an allegorical map and text was a difficult task, an intellectual endeavor, which demanded that the author carefully choose the symbols that would outlive the material. In this paper, the Fool’s Cap Map of the World is presented as an example of icono-textual analysis, by bringing together the most popular literary works and their illustrations – Erasmus Desiderius, Sebastian Brandt, and Hieronymus Bosch. The double masks of the author – the pseudonym “Epichtonius Cosmopolites”, with its denunciation of nationality, and the jester’s costume, were chosen as the means of conveying unpleasant truths about the state of the world, France, and/or the Netherlands. Human hybris, Suberbia and Vanitas were the primal sins, by which they were all blinded, waging wars for pieces of land and worldly goods. Therefore, the fool’s malade is melancholy, strictly reserved for male intellectuals – Ficino, Dürer, Shakespeare, Bright and Burton. On the other hand, it would seem as if the female primal sin were vanity, which brings the puritan Bunyan and Anglican Thackeray into this polyphonic interpretation. Their works did, however, show that’'vanitas’ is present among both genders and is an everlasting human trait, now heavily exploited as a ’cash crop’ par excellence. Since all knowlegde is situated, I feel the need to say that I am finishing this paper in self-quarantine due to the ’new plague’ pandemic, wondering if the people in this mad and greedy world would contemplate how all is nothing, and whether the survivors would be better, i.e. more human, acting with more empathy, regardless of the perpetually announced Apocalypse. This remains to be witnessed.

춘원과 魯迅의 초기 종교관 고찰-『무정』 『재생』과 『吶喊』 『仿徨』의 남성 지식인 캐릭터를 중심으로

본고에서는 춘원과 魯迅의 초기 소설 중 남성 지식인 캐릭터를 연구 대상으로 삼아 당시 그들의 종교관을 고찰하고자 하였다.BR 『무정』의 박 진사는 양반 귀족 출신이고, 유교적 사상을 지닌 구식 지식인이며 나라를 구하기 위하여 계몽 운동을 시도하는 선각자다. 이 인물을 통해서 춘원은 유교의 ‘가부장적 사상’에 대한 부정적인 의식을 드러낸다. 반면 동학의 ‘민족주의’ 사상과 기독교의 ‘헌신’, ‘박애’ 정신을 긍정적으로 바라본다. 김 장로는 신귀족으로 서양의 겉모습을 흉내 내는 사람이다. 그를 통해서 춘원은 당시 조선 기독교의 문제점을 비판한다. 『재생』 속의 신봉구는 자신을 배신한 애인에게 복수하다 감옥 안에서 자신의 “타락”을 반성하고 종교의 힘으로 각성한다. 이 인물을 통해서 춘원의 1920년대 기독교 정신, 톨스토이의 박애 정신 그리고 민족주의적 정신이 합쳐져 형성된 혼합종교관을 드러나는 것을 볼 수 있다.BR 魯迅은 󰡔吶喊󰡕에서 孔乙己라는 지식인 캐릭터를 통해 유교 사상을 신랄하게 풍자하며 ‘계급적 신분 차별’과 ‘노동 경시’에 대해 비판한다. 夏瑜는 신지식인 대표로 구세주의 특징을 갖는다. 夏瑜를 통해서 魯迅이 기독교의 ‘평등’, ‘자기희생’을 긍정적으로 본다는 것을 알 수 있다. 󰡔仿徨󰡕의 魏连殳는 원래 ‘박애정신’을 지닌 청년이었지만 주변으로부터 배신당한 후 ‘복수’를 시도하는 인물이다. 이 인물을 통해서 魯迅이 기독교의 ‘용서’에 대해 부정적인 태도를 갖는 반면 불교의 ‘징계’에 대해 긍정적인 태도를 보임을 알 수 있다.BR 춘원과 魯迅은 유교 사상에 반대하며 기독교 사상 중 ‘박애’ 정신을 적극적으로 받아들이고 ‘자기희생’ 정신을 높이 산다. 하지만 춘원은 ‘용서’를 긍정적으로 보는 반면 魯迅은 그렇지 않다. 초기 종교관에서 불교가 춘원에게 미친 영향은 적었지만 魯迅은 불교의 징계 사상을 수용해서 주요 사상으로 받아들였다.

Las mujeres de los Partidos Comunistas de Argentina y Chile entre los '30 y '60

In this paper, I propose to establish a series of considerations about how the Communist Party structured the women’s organization in Argentina between the 30s and 60s, pointing out to international and vernacular questions. Punctually, I am interested in analyzing the state of research in Argentina on this topic and, then, establishing links with other national cases that contribute to the mapping out the experience of communism and women. As a counterpoint, I will take a case which is singular both in Latin American history, as well as in communism’s history in general, since this case shows that the processes under study were not linear: the well-studied case of communism in Chile.It has a socio-political interest because propose to understand the political mobilization of women as relevant subjects. If the study of politics has traditionally had myopia of gender, we can not affirm that academic research on the left (or from the left) has managed to evade the exclusionary sexism. Indeed, it took as general history of communist party the one that concern exclusively of the disputes of male intellectuals and organic leaders.

The Fathers Refounded: Protestant Liberalism, Roman Catholic Modernism, and the Teaching of Ancient Christianity in Early Twentieth-Century America by Elizabeth A. Clark

Reviewed by: The Fathers Refounded: Protestant Liberalism, Roman Catholic Modernism, and the Teaching of Ancient Christianity in Early Twentieth-Century America by Elizabeth A. Clark Maia Kotrosits The Fathers Refounded: Protestant Liberalism, Roman Catholic Modernism, and the Teaching of Ancient Christianity in Early Twentieth-Century America Elizabeth A. Clark Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2019. Pp. 440. ISBN: 978-0812250718 The last decade has brought the swift contraction of Religious Studies and Classics departments across the United States, as well as the instability and collapse of so many progressive theological institutions. Not incidentally, this is occurring on a national landscape in which public discourse about religion is almost devastatingly poor, and religion remains a significant force shaping the very texture and terrain of national socio-political life. As a result, the study of ancient Christianity has hit a skid of existential self-questioning: will the discipline survive? If so, how? And in what form? Another way this worry has been voiced is: How can the study of ancient Christianity be more relevant? How can it be, shall we say, "of the moment?" Appearing on the scene during this panic about survival, Elizabeth Clark's The Fathers Refounded recounts, with ample detail and narrative restraint, another phase of self-reckoning: in the first two decades of the twentieth century, a number of white Christian male intellectuals wondered if Christianity could be modern. What they imagined that to mean was whether Christianity could more explicitly engage the potent intellectual and cultural changes of the moment while still somehow retaining a sense of long-view coherence. It was a question that negotiated theological concerns and historical ones, as the three figures on which Clark concentrates her attention, Arthur Cushman McGiffert (of Union Theological Seminary), George LaPiana (of Harvard Divinity School), and Shirley Jackson Case (University of Chicago Divinity School), sought to deliver sketches of ancient Christianity that were both academically viable and still meaningful to public audiences, including and especially their students. Methodically reconstructed out of elusive and muddled archives, Clark's depictions of these three figures in their intellectual, social, and institutional worlds present a pinball machine of ricocheting responses to the strange impressions that the experiences of modernity and modernism left. And so Clark's book is thoroughly, if not always explicitly, about the quandaries of time: where was faith to be found—or placed—in the tension between vaunted pasts and glittering human futures? Christianity's long march forward became not just a point of curiosity, but a source of inspiration, and in some cases, an intractable problem. A few examples: McGiffert knocked the idea of a Harnackian essence to Christianity, as well as the nostalgic desire to return to the ostensible clarity of the early church, and thought any hope of returning to that time was a wish to return to a "second childhood" and a function of "the inanity of a decrepit old age." There were deviations from the teachings of Jesus all along, beginning with Paul, and we cannot "unlive our life," he writes [End Page 458] soberly (98). But McGiffert nonetheless saw antiquity and modernity as comparable, operating in something of parallel universes. His temporality is therefore subtly frictive: trajectory and "maturity" competes with simultaneity. LaPiana, arguing for a culturally unoriginal Christianity, found himself using the historical past to envision a future for the church. Christianity developed, and it was this change that can and should be the source of inspiration for church life—a living tradition. But in his own use of contemporary politics as historical corollaries (comparing, for example, migrants in Rome to Italian immigrants in the U.S. in his lengthy and well-known "Foreign Groups in Rome During the First Centuries of the Empire"), his history suggests not directional change as much as circularity. As Clark notes, despite LaPiana's critique of "one-man" forms of authority characteristic of both the Catholic Church and Italian fascism, contexts that strongly informed his work, LaPiana still saw the development of the papacy as inevitable for Christianity's growth (327). Case, a lover of method and often writing for public audiences, deployed social history not only to refuse celebrations of the past, ones...