Male-female Association Research Articles

Effectiveness of multigene analysis for associating dimorphic partners in flat wasps (Hymenoptera, Bethylidae, Dissomphalus)

DNA sequences have proved valuable for associating males and females of the same dimorphic species in Hymenoptera. These molecular associations, however, depend on the used DNA sequences and the analysis methods. In the present study, we evaluated the molecular associations on 23 species of Dissomphalus (Hymenoptera, Bethylidae) using the three most common DNA sequences in molecular studies of Hymenoptera (28S rRNA, COI and ITS2). Our results indicated the male-female association with these three markers. COI, however, showed to be more suitable than the other markers because there was no overlap of genetic variation among species. In contrast, the 28S rRNA showed overlapping of genetic distance limits, indicating that the distance matrix is not enough to assign a sexual conspecificity. We were able to perform female association to the described species D. verus Mugrabi & Azevedo, demonstrating that phylogenetic analysis is a valuable tool for associating the sexes of dimorphic species.

Insights into the systematics of Afrotropical Laelius (Hymenoptera, Bethylidae): combining molecular and morphological data to associate dimorphic species

The epyrine genus Laelius Ashmead, consists of a total of 63 valid species recorded from all zoogeographic regions. Two of them, namely L. firmipennis (Cameron) and L. glossinae (Turner & Waterston), have been recorded from the Afrotropical region. In the present study, we revise all species of Laelius from the Afrotropical region by newly collected specimens, based on an integrative taxonomy approach, combining morphological characters and molecular phylogenetic analyses. We recognize seven species, one previously described, Laelius firmipennis, and six as new species, which are described and illustrated: Laelius pumbaaisp. nov., Laelius sarabiaesp. nov., Laelius scarisp. nov., Laelius simbaisp. nov., Laelius timonisp. nov. and Laelius ziraesp. nov. Additionally, we propose Laelius glossinae as a junior synonym of Laelius firmipennis based on the morphological characters. Male–female associations of L. firmipennis and L. pumbaai are supported by molecular data, while L. scari by morphological data. We also provide a synopsis of how male–female associations were established in the other species of Laelius. Finally, we present a taxonomic key for all Afrotropical species of Laelius.

Chimpanzee communities differ in their inter- and intrasexual social relationships

Male and female human social bonding strategies are culturally shaped, in addition to being genetically rooted. Investigating nonhuman primate bonding strategies across sex groups allows researchers to assess whether, as with humans, they are shaped by the social environment or whether they are genetically predisposed. Studies of wild chimpanzees show that in some communities males have strong bonds with other males, whereas in others, females form particularly strong intrasex bonds, potentially indicative of cultural differences across populations. However, excluding genetic or ecological explanations when comparing different wild populations is difficult. Here, we applied social network analysis to examine male and female social bonds in two neighbouring semiwild chimpanzee groups of comparable ecological conditions and subspecies compositions, but that differ in demographic makeup. Results showed differences in bonding strategies across the two groups. While female–female party co-residence patterns were significantly stronger in Group 1 (which had an even distribution of males and females) than in Group 2 (which had a higher proportion of females than males), there were no such differences for male–male or male–female associations. Conversely, female–female grooming bonds were stronger in Group 2 than in Group 1. We also found that, in line with captive studies but contrasting research with wild chimpanzees, maternal kinship strongly predicted proximity and grooming patterns across the groups. Our findings suggest that, as with humans, male and female chimpanzee social bonds are influenced by the specific social group they live in, rather than predisposed sex-based bonding strategies.Graphical

Association patterns of female gorillas.

Social interactions ultimately impact health and fitness in gregarious mammals. However, research focusing on the strength of affiliative interactions has primarily been conducted on female philopatric species. Gorillas provide an interesting counterpoint to previous research as females emigrate multiple times throughout their lives. We compare female-female association strength, duration and consistency in wild mountain (Gorilla beringei beringei) and western gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). Additionally, we examine whether the alpha male influences female association strength and if these associations are an artefact of both females concurrently in spatial proximity of the alpha male. In this between-species comparison, female gorillas had differentiated association patterns that were consistent on average for 2 years. The alpha males did not influence female association strength, with associations being similar in his presence or absence. Finally, we found more variability in association patterns among mountain gorillas with higher average association scores and higher proportion of 'preferred associates' than western gorillas. The rare dispersal pattern in the Gorilla genus may lead to greater flexibility in female association patterns than in species exhibiting female philopatry and strong kinship bonds. This may echo ancestral human society and provide new evidence to help us understand the evolution of modern human society. This article is part of the theme issue 'Cooperation among women: evolutionary and cross-cultural perspectives'.

Smicridea McLachlan (Trichoptera: Hydropsychidae) from mountain ranges in Bahia state, Brazil: new species and male-female associations

ABSTRACT Smicridea McLachlan comprises 253 species divided into two subgenera: Smicridea and Rhyacophylax Müller. Smicridea (Smicridea) comprises species with males possessing two pairs of internal glands in abdominal segments VI and VII and hind legs bearing two pairs of spurs. Among species of this subgenus, those assigned to the Smicridea (Smicridea) fasciatella species group are characterized by a simple tubular phallus, presenting an apex with eversible sclerites. The aim of this paper is to describe and illustrate two new species in the S. (Smicridea) fasciatella species group and the female of Smicridea (Smicridea) capao Vilarino, Dias & Calor, 2019. Fieldwork was carried out in mountain ranges located in Bahia State, northeastern Brazil, both in the Atlantic Forest biome (Serra Bonita Reserve) and in the Caatinga biome (Chapada Diamantina Complex, Parque Municipal de Mucugê). Smicridea (Smicridea) kamakan sp. nov. and Smicridea (Smicridea) serrati sp. nov. can be recognized mainly by the morphology of tergum X and the inferior appendages. In addition, two couples of S. (Smicridea) capao were collected and resulted in the direct association of males and females; the female has a very conspicuous, oval sclerite VIII, with the apex constricted in the anterior portion, in ventral view. urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:CF8BAE97-7D6B-4460-8A9D-35BBBACF2BE0

Social and Seasonal Factors Contribute to Shifts in Male African Elephant (Loxodonta africana) Foraging and Activity Patterns in Kruger National Park, South Africa.

Simple SummaryAfrican savannah elephants are able to greatly modify the vegetation around them through their foraging activities. Accordingly, studying the factors that affect elephant foraging behaviour during different seasons are important to understand their impact on the environment and will also aid in predicting how elephants might react to potential threats such as climate change and land transformation. This article aimed to reinforce current knowledge regarding elephant foraging behaviour by examining how the behaviour is affected across (a) season (wet versus dry); (b) time of day (before or after noon); (c) presence or absence of other elephants; and (d) reproductive state; for six adult elephant bulls monitored in Kruger National Park. Results indicated that elephant foraging behaviour is indeed affected by seasonal and social factors. This highlights how these animals are able to adjust their foraging behaviour during the day to aid in thermoregulation, or during different seasons to fulfil their nutritional requirements. Furthermore, this study opens the door for further research regarding how reproductive activity affects the foraging behaviour of male elephants.African savannah elephants (Loxodonta africana) are well-known as ecosystem engineers with the ability to modify vegetation structure. The present study aimed to examine how male elephant foraging behaviour is affected across (a) season (wet versus dry); (b) time of day (before or after noon); (c) presence or absence of other elephants; and (d) reproductive state (musth versus no musth). Six radio-collared adult elephant bulls were observed twice per week from June 2007–June 2008 in Kruger National Park (KNP), South Africa. Using generalized linear mixed effect modeling, results indicate that elephant bulls graze more during the wet season and browse more during the dry season. To potentially offset the costs associated with thermoregulation during the heat of the day, KNP elephants spent more time foraging during the morning, and more time resting during the afternoon. Male elephants also foraged significantly less when they were associated with females compared to when they were alone or with other males. This is likely due to male–female associations formed mainly for reproductive purposes, thus impeding on male foraging behaviours. In contrast, the condition of musth, defined by the presence of related physical signs, had no significant effect on foraging behaviour.

On the Natural History of the Black Winged Firefly, Phosphaenopterus metzneri Schaufuss, 1870 with Comparative Notes on Phosphaenina (Coleoptera: Lampyridae)

The genus Phosphaenopterus Schaufuss, 1870 encompasses two species restricted to Europe, both underrepresented in the literature and entomological collections. Phosphaenopterus metzneri Schaufuss, 1870 is the most widely distributed within the genus, being recorded in France, Portugal, and Spain. Since its century-old original description based only on the male, the biology of this species was not further investigated. By collecting larvae of Phosphaenina where male of Phosphaenopterus metzneri occur, we reared them to adults, resulting in male and females of Phosphaenopterus metzneri – the latter hitherto unknown. The male-female association was possible due to copula recorded ex-situ. Here, we describe for the first time the neotenic female of Phosphaenopterus metzneri, a diurnal firefly, and redescribed the male. We provide illustration of diagnostic features of the adults, and an updated distribution map for Phosphenopterus metzneri. Considering the morphological resemblance between all the three species within Phosphaenina, we also redescribe the male of Phosphaenus hemipterus (Goeze, 1777), a species also presents in Portugal, providing important diagnostic features for both taxa. By comparing the morphology of males of Phosphaenus hemipterus and Phosphaenopterus metzneri, we could not find any difference other than proportions of elytra, and wings, which may be a result of the brachypterous condition of the former. This study stresses and discusses a putative case of wing polymorphism in Lampyridae, a rare condition in fireflies. This is also the first study to report both species in sympatric distribution.

Genetic ancestry predicts male–female affiliation in a natural baboon hybrid zone

Opposite-sex social relationships are important predictors of fitness in many animals, including several group-living mammals. Consequently, understanding sources of variance in the tendency to form opposite-sex relationships is important for understanding social evolution. Genetic contributions are of particular interest due to their importance in long-term evolutionary change, but little is known about genetic effects on male-female relationships in social mammals, especially outside of the mating context. Here, we investigate the effects of genetic ancestry on male-female affiliative behaviour in a hybrid zone between the yellow baboon, Papio cynocephalus, and the anubis baboon, Papio anubis, in a population in which male-female social bonds are known predictors of life span. We place our analysis within the context of other social and demographic predictors of affiliative behaviour in baboons. Genetic ancestry was the most consistent predictor of opposite-sex affiliative behaviour we observed, with the exception of strong effects of dominance rank. Our results show that increased anubis genetic ancestry is associated with a subtle, but significantly higher, probability of opposite-sex affiliative behaviour, in both males and females. Additionally, pairs of anubis-like males and anubis-like females were the most likely to socially affiliate, resulting in moderate assortativity in grooming and proximity behaviour as a function of genetic ancestry. Our findings indicate that opposite-sex affiliative behaviour partially diverged during baboon evolution to differentiate yellow and anubis baboons, despite overall similarities in their social structures and mating systems. Furthermore, they suggest that affiliative behaviour may simultaneously promote and constrain baboon admixture, through additive and assortative effects of ancestry, respectively.

Contrasting levels of social distancing between the sexes in lions

SummaryUnderstanding sexual segregation is crucial to comprehend sociality. A comparative analysis of long-term lion data from Serengeti and Ngorongoro in Tanzania, and Gir in India, reveals that male-female associations are contingent upon male and female group size, prey-size and availability, and the number of prides that each male coalition currently resides. Males maintain proximity with females, whereas females are responsible for segregation except at large kills. Lions feed on the largest prey in Ngorongoro and the smallest in Gir, and females spend the most time with males in Ngorongoro and the least in Gir. Females roar less often in prey-scarce circumstances in Serengeti and throughout the year in Gir possibly to prevent being tracked by males that parasitize on female kills. However, females readily associate with males when available prey is large and abundant. Contrasting availability of resources between Gir and Serengeti/Ngorongoro helps explain the varying degrees of sexual segregation and appears to drive differences in mating systems between these lion populations.

Musth and its effects on male–male and male–female associations in Asian elephants

Abstract Musth is an annual, asynchronous, rut-like phenomenon observed in male elephants. We examined whether musth is a roving strategy, and whether musth provides a temporary advantage to young males through increased access to female groups. We collected long-term data on the musth status, associations, and locations of male elephants in the Kabini population in southern India. We sighted older males more frequently in musth than younger males. We found a greater turnover of musth than non-musth males in the study area, suggesting that musth is a roving strategy, enabling males to travel widely and away from their non-musth range. Contrary to our expectation, young (15–30 years old) males spent a smaller proportion of their musth time than their non-musth time associating with females, and associated with similarly sized female groups irrespective of musth status. Old (> 30 years old) males spent only a slightly higher proportion of their musth time than non-musth time with female groups, but associated with larger female groups during musth. Although old males in musth associated with young non-musth males more often in the presence, than in the absence, of females, young males in musth were never sighted with old non-musth males in the presence of females. Therefore, the payoff from musth, as a strategy to gain access to females, was age-specific; musth in old males allowed for increased association with females, while musth in young males restricted their access to females. There was no spatial avoidance between musth and non-musth adult males at scales larger than immediate associations. Our results suggest that musth seems to be primarily a roving strategy for old males to find and associate with females and not a strategy for young males to gain a temporary advantage over old males, within the broad age-classes that we examined.

How life in a tolerant society affects the attention to social information in baboons

An animals' ability to classify relationships between conspecifics according to kinship, affiliation and dominance constitutes an important adaptation to life in social groups. Yet, variation in the degree of competition as well as in association patterns is assumed to put differential pressure on social cognition. Because little is known about social cognition in more tolerant societies, we investigated the social knowledge of Guinea baboons, Papio papio, ranging in the Niokolo Koba National Park, Senegal. Guinea baboons live in a fluid multilevel society with ‘units’, ‘parties’ and ‘gangs’. Units comprise a ‘primary’ male, a small number of females and young. Male–female associations may last between a few weeks to several years, and females freely transfer between males at all levels of the society. Male–male relationships are characterized by high spatial tolerance and low level of competition. We examined whether males tracked changes in male–female associations at the level of the unit. We played back grunt exchanges between a female and a primary male to 25 males and recorded male responses. The grunt sequences simulated an affiliative interaction between individuals from different units (potentially indicating a female transfer to a new male, hereafter ‘inconsistent’ condition) or from individuals of the same unit (‘consistent’ condition). Surprisingly, males looked longer when exposed to the consistent compared to the inconsistent condition. In the more competitive chacma baboons, Papio ursinus, in contrast, animals responded more strongly to experimentally simulated deviations from existing social patterns. Our study suggests that the value of social information indeed varies with the degree of competition of Guinea baboons: because of female choice, little is at stake for males when a female transfers to a new male. Furthermore, the high gregariousness of the animals may favour the classification of deviant interaction patterns, at least initially, as ‘social noise’.

How accurately do behavioural observations predict reproductive success in free-ranging lizards?

Behavioural ecologists often use data on patterns of male–female association to infer reproductive success of free-ranging animals. For example, a male seen with several females during the mating season is predicted to father more offspring than a male not seen with any females. We explored the putative correlation between this behaviour and actual paternity (as revealed by microsatellite data) from a long-term study on sand lizards (Lacerta agilis), including behavioural observations of 574 adult males and 289 adult females, and paternity assignment of more than 2500 offspring during 1998–2007. The number of males that contributed paternity to a female's clutch was correlated with the number of males seen accompanying her in the field, but not with the number of copulation scars on her body. The number of females that a male accompanied in the field predicted the number of females with whom he fathered offspring, and his annual reproductive success (number of progeny). Although behavioural data explained less than one-third of total variance in reproductive success, our analysis supports the utility of behavioural-ecology studies for predicting paternity in free-ranging reptiles.

New data about Australophlebotomus notteghemae Léger & Pesson, 1993 (Diptera, Psychodidae)

ABSTRACTTwo endemic Australophlebotomus species have been recorded in New Caledonia: Au. notteghemae Léger & Pesson and Au. maduloae Léger & Pesson, as reported in 1993. At that time, the authors mainly based their description on male holotypes, and tentatively associated two different females called ‘A’ and ‘B’ to each male. Very scarce in New Caledonia, these two species have been reported on very few occasions, with specimens coming from various locations of this island. Having now access to two Australophlebotomus females and two Au. notteghemae males caught in 1997 in the Touaourou cave (New Caledonia), our aim was to validate the male-female association in Au. notteghemae and to add to the description of this species. One pair was subjected to a DNA analysis while the other pair was used for morphological studies. Cytochrome b of the mtDNA, and the D1, D2 and D8 domains of the 28S rDNA were sequenced. For each marker, full sequence homology (100%, no mutation) was observed for the processed male and female. Original drawings and new morphological data about Au. notteghemae are provided. Both molecular and morphological evidences strongly associate female ‘A’ to the male Au. notteghemae specimen.

Pairs in copulation of the highly dimorphic genus Pristocera Klug (Hymenoptera, Bethylidae) from Madagascar solve taxonomic problems of male-female associations.

The main goal of this paper is to update the taxonomic information of the pairs of Pristocera Klug collected in Madagascar by A. Seyrig. Within this material twelve species are recognized, ten are new to science, all based on pairs collected in copulation, which are described and illustrated: P. melmani sp. nov., P. alexi sp. nov., P. martyi sp. nov., P. gloriae sp. nov., P. julieni sp. nov., P. morti sp. nov., P. mauricei sp. nov., P. makungai sp. nov., P. teetsii sp. nov. and P. zubai sp. nov.. Pristocera levicollis (Kieffer) had its female discovered, and P. cambouei Saussure stat. rev. had its lectotype designated. Sclerodermus hova Saussure is transferred back to Pristocera and considered as a junior synonym of P. cambouei. Keys for males and females to the species of Pristocera from Madagascar are provided. The Malagasy fauna of Pristocera is now represented by twelve species, all endemic to this island.

First Anthomyzidae (Diptera) from China: a new genus, six new species and new records

The family Anthomyzidae (Diptera: Acalyptrata) is recorded from China for the first time based on 11 species, 6 of them new to science. A distinctive new genus Marshallya gen. nov. is described, based on single peculiar species, M. platythorax sp. nov. (both sexes) from Sichuan. Other new species, viz. Amygdalops sevciki sp. nov. (Hainan I.) (both sexes), Epischnomyia tkoci sp. nov. (Sichuan) (male only), Anthomyza ornata sp. nov. (Sichuan) (female only), Anthomyza sulphurea sp. nov. (Yunnan) (both sexes) and Arganthomyza hyperseta sp. nov. (Shaanxi) (male only) are described and illustrated in detail. Male-female association of two Amygdalops species is clarified by means of molecular barcoding and the female of A. bisinus Roháček, 2008 is correctly identifi ed and described. Relationships of all these taxa are discussed. Five species, viz. Amygdalops bisinus (Hainan I.), Epischnomyia merzi Roháček, 2009, Anthomyza cuneata Roháček, 1987, Anthomyza trifurca Sueyoshi & Roháček, 2003 (all from Sichuan) and Arganthomyza versitheca Roháček, 2009 (Shaanxi, Sichuan) are new additions to the Chinese fauna of Anthomyzidae. DNA sequences of the barcoding region of COI have been obtained for 3 species, Amygdalops bisinus, Amygdalops sevciki and Marshallya platythorax. Biology and distribution of all 11 species are discussed. First photographs of living Anthomyzidae from East Asia are presented. Based on knowledge of Anthomyzidae from neighbouring areas the diversity of the Chinese fauna of the family is estimated to include 50-60 species.

Mating in a bisexually philopatric society: bottlenose dolphin females associate with adult males but not adult sons during estrous

In fission-fusion societies, group size and composition change dynamically, reflecting social preferences and pressures. Most notably during reproduction, intersexual group dynamics reflect a balance between female choice for optimal mates and male competition for mating access. In systems where males and females remain in their natal area for life (bisexual philopatry), females can reduce the risk of incest by avoiding mating or associating with male kin. Shark Bay bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus) live in fission-fusion societies that enable them to exercise age, sex, and kin association biases. To determine how the balance between female choice and male competition is achieved, we examined adult female association with juvenile and adult males, including sons during female receptive periods, using 30 years of longitudinal data. Adult females demonstrated an increase in adult male association just prior to known conceptions, while juvenile male association consistently remained low. A decline in male association post-conception suggests that one or both sexes detect pregnancy early on. When we examined female association with juvenile and adult sons, a distinct pattern emerged. Adult females preferentially associated with sons compared to non-sons of the same age class post-weaning. Strikingly, females rarely associated with their adult sons when cycling. Our results suggest that (1) adult males either out-compete juvenile males in gaining access to fertile females or females prefer adult to juvenile males and (2) females mitigate the risk of close inbreeding by reducing association with sons when cycling. No study has investigated behavioral strategies for reducing close inbreeding in bisexually philopatric, fluid mammal societies outside of humans. Using over 30 years of longitudinal data, we document how association dynamics change with female reproductive state. Post-weaning, mothers and sons associate, but almost never during conceptive periods. Adult male–female association is frequent during estrous, with a sharp decline after conception. Our study provides evidence for long-term kin recognition and detection of both estrous and early pregnancy among wild bottlenose dolphins. These findings have implications for the evolution of bisexual philopatry, fission-fusion dynamics, and infanticide—or lack thereof—in mammals.

Offspring loss after male change in wild siamangs: the importance of abrupt weaning and male care.

Infanticide by males is assumed to promote permanent male-female associations, although its importance for social monogamy is still debated. We examined the consequences of male membership change in the largest socially monogamous primate, the siamang (Symphalangus syndactylus), a species that also forms polyandrous groups and where males may provide offspring care. We examine (a) the potential risk of infanticide by documenting changes in female-offspring relationships following male change, expecting abrupt weaning; and (b) the potential importance of male care and polyandry for offspring survival. We witnessed four male changes at Way Canguk Field Station (Indonesia) in groups where the youngest offspring was estimated to be about 2years of age. We quantified aspects of mother-offspring relationships (interindividual distance, body contact, and nipple contact) and estimated the proportion of time being carried during travel (August 2007-April 2009). In the two groups into which new males immigrated, offspring were weaned abruptly, suggesting infanticide by males as a potential risk. Even though no attacks on infants by males were witnessed, both infants disappeared shortly after the male change. Another infant disappeared after its main carrier (a male) emigrated. Conversely, in a group where the resident subordinate male replaced the dominant male, the offspring experienced no change in care and survived the transition. These findings suggest that male immigration in hylobatids increases mortality risk for infants, emphasize the importance of offspring care, and cast doubts on prior classifications of 2-year-old siamangs as independently traveling individuals.

Mother-male bond, but not paternity, influences male-infant affiliation in wild crested macaques.

In promiscuous primates, interactions between adult males and infants have rarely been investigated. However, recent evidence suggests that male affiliation towards infants has an influence on several aspects of the infants’ life. Furthermore, affiliations may be associated with male reproductive strategy. In this study, we examined which social factors influenced male-infant affiliation initiated by either male or infant, in wild crested macaques (Macaca nigra). We combined behavioral data and genetic paternity analysis from 30 infants living in three wild groups in Tangkoko Reserve, Indonesia. Our results indicate that adult males and infants do not interact at random, but rather form preferential associations. The social factors with the highest influence on infant-initiated interactions were male rank and male association with the infant’s mother. While infants initiated affiliations with males more often in the absence of their mothers, adult males initiated more affiliations with infants when their mothers were present. Furthermore, males initiated affiliations more often when they were in the same group at the time the infant was conceived, when they held a high dominance rank, or when they had a close relationship with the mother. Interestingly, paternity did not affect male-infant affiliation despite being highly skewed in this species. Overall, our results suggest that adult males potentially associate with an infant to secure future mating with the mother. Infants are more likely to associate with a male to receive better support, suggesting a strategy to increase the chance of infant survival in a primate society with high infant mortality.Significance statementWe explore social relationships between males and infants in a promiscuous primate, the wild crested macaque. Our novel approach addresses the nature of affiliations both from males’ and infants’ perspectives. The results show that males and infants form preferential associations. Male-female affiliation, but not paternity, was a significant predictor of interactions initiated both by males and infants. Males initiated more interactions towards infants when the mother was in proximity, while infants initiated more interactions in her absence. Finally, high-ranking males were more likely to initiate interactions towards infants. We demonstrated that paternity is not a good predictor of male-infant affiliations, even in a species with a high reproductive skew and a relatively high confidence of paternity. Our paper is one of the first to show that infants are active agents in establishing and maintaining preferential relationships with males.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00265-016-2116-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Stability and strength of male-female associations in a promiscuous primate society

Close associations between adult males and lactating females occur in several promiscuous primate species. Benefits gained by males from such bonds may include increases in offspring fitness through paternal effort (the “mate-then-care” hypothesis) and/or subsequent mating opportunities with the female (the “care-then-mate” hypothesis). Heterosexual friendships between males and females have been described as tightly linked to the presence of a dependent infant, but few studies have investigated whether these associations may be longer, starting before an infant birth and lasting after its independence, and whether they may vary in strength across time and dyads. We investigated the stability and strength of heterosexual bonds in two groups of wild chacma baboons (Papio ursinus) to test whether male-female associations (1) last from offspring conception to independence, as expected under the mate-then-care hypothesis, (2) last after maternal cycling resumption and increase male mating success, as expected under the care-then-mate hypothesis, and (3) vary in strength depending on female reproductive state, age and rank. Our results show that most male-female bonds were already present at offspring conception, were maintained during pregnancy and lactation and disappeared when mothers resumed cycling. Moreover, heterosexual bonds were most intense during early lactation and for high-ranking females, and did not predict subsequent mating activity. Those findings favour the mate-then-care hypothesis, and confirm that male paternity assessment may, at least partially, rely on mating history. Overall, stable heterosexual friendships exist outside early lactation and last longer than previously thought, suggesting that male-female bonds could play an important and under-appreciated role on the social structure of groups in promiscuous primate societies.

Integrative taxonomy of new firefly taxa from the Atlantic Rainforest

Tropical mountains are hotspots of biodiversity, hosting many endemic species. Here, we propose Luciuranus gen. nov. and four new firefly species dwelling in montane habitats of the Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest. Luciuranus gen. nov. is unique in the shape of the last abdominal segments of both males and females, varying in a clear species-specific fashion. Luciuranus josephi sp. nov. and L. jameshooki sp. nov. are restricted to Serra dos Órgãos mountain range, while L. dextrus sp. nov. and L. sinistrus sp. nov. are restricted to Serra da Mantiqueira formation. DNA barcoding with COI gene confirmed species identities and male–female associations. We propose that terminalia structures work together as a lock-and-key mechanism, avoiding hybridization in overlapping zones along heterogeneous habitats, such as montane forests, where temperature, moisture, and vegetation cover can change significantly even in small spatial and temporal scales. Such morphological displacement is discussed in terms of sexual selection on both male and female features. We also provide detailed morphological descriptions, illustrations, and a key to species based on males and females.http://zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:05598351-4655-49E5-9011-B90DFC7D9435