Malay Sultanate Research Articles

The Transformation of Ethnic Relations in Malaysia

Ethnic relations in Malaysia have undergone a long history. It all began when the Melaka Malay Government was founded until today. Today, communities of various backgrounds, cultures and religions are the main characteristics of world countries. These pluralistic communities are perceived to have been burdened with all-too-common ethnic competitions and conflicts. In Malaysia, the concept of race is not used in understanding the relationship between people of various cultures. The concept adopted instead is the one characterising upon the culture, language, and religion. The Malay World had successfully constructed a pluralistic society through inter-group bonding that there was a cross-cultural relationship based on the permeable and umbrella ethnicity concepts. However, through the Divide and Rule Policy by the British colonials, it had changed the form of ethnic relations in the Malay World to the point that there was a distributed occupational form according to different ethnic groups. The structure of ethnic relations in Malaysia post-NEP was influenced by a very thin line of ethnic boundaries and their relationships based on non-ethnic considerations. Meanwhile, the analysis of the Post-14th General Election finds that there has a positive and negative scenario and situations created in terms of the ethnic relations in Malaysia. Thus, this article will analyse the transformation of ethnic relations in Malaysia since the Malay Sultanate Era in Melaka, the Era of Colonisation, the Post-New Economic Policy Era and the Post-14th General Election Era.

INTERNASIONALISASI KHAZANAH KESULTANAN DAN KERATON MELALUI BAHAN BACAAN BAHASA INGGRIS

Information on a culture needs to be written in an international language, like English language, to make it well known internationally. Such reading materials would also have positive impact in the educational and cultural diplomacy. This article argues on the importance of the internationalization of Kalimantan Barat culture and recommends a research procedure to develop materials on Malay sultanates and palaces in Kalimantan Barat as English extensive reading sources for younger generations. There are three foci of activity that are suggested here, namely: need analyses, designing and developing, and evaluation. The presence of such products would facilitate the local younger generations learn their cultures and English language simultaneously through extensive reading activities. The presence of confirmable materials would help reduce information bias and misunderstanding about the history and the culture. - Through extensively reading local materials that are written in English, it is expexted that the younger generations would be able to communicate their local culture and history nationally and internationally.

The Land Of Complexity 19th and 20th Century Northern Borneo Socio-Demographic History: A Review

North Borneo has always been the object of international interests and politics. This situation is the effect of socio-demographic plurality that led to the absence of a cohesive socio-political identity that can unite them together. This study aims to analyze the social demographic history of the people of North Borneo (Kalimantan) in the 19th and 20th centuries to understand the complex geopolitics in the region during the decolonialisation process in the post-Second World War. Using a literature review, there are some points concluded, first, the Malay Sultanate of Brunei had dominated the political structure of the area that influenced the foundation of the Malay social system in North Borneo for the following centuries. Second, the colonial project of James Brooke changed the social order in North Borneo with the significant presence of non-Malay groups such as the Chinese until the mid-20th century. Third, the Japanese occupation during the Second World War had brought nationalism among the natives. This spirit had led to an attitude of ethnonationalism that makes it was challenging to build a cohesive national identity among different ethnic groups there. Fourth, after the war, regional conflicts due to the Cold War triggered differences in political systems among the new states that gained independence

The Architectural Concept of Malay Royal Town

For the king or sultan-ruled states category, the Malay Royal towns are portrayed to be the most prominent town in the sultanate of Malay's administration structures. Apart from that, the Malay Royal Town has also been categorised as a historic town, representing the position and significance of the Malay sultanate hierarchy, dating back to the 16th century. This study's objective focuses on describing the idea of Malaysia’s Malay Royal Town, which has founded the identity and image along with the elements in the tangible and intangible category that substantiates sustainability following the rapid urban development in operation where nearly all the Royal Towns of Malaysia are involved. Multiple case studies have been conducted in Malay Royal towns throughout Malaysia are Arau, Alor Setar, Kuala Kangsar, Klang, Seri Menanti, Muar, Pekan, Kuala Terengganu and Kota Bharu. In order to understand and define the concept and structure of Malay Royal towns in Malaysia, the research method adopted includes site observation, historical map overlay and semi-structured interviews. Results obtained from the research indicated that the Royal Towns of Malay had taken a major role in influencing the history and growth of the towns as they are replete with identity and cultural values. Therefore, there is a need for the Malay Royal towns’ concept to be explored and appreciated by the nation so that all the distinctive elements and culture present within the Malay Royal towns can be retained for the knowledge of generations to come.

Kesultanan Serdang dan Jejak Peninggalannya

This article aims to discuss the history of the Serdang Sultanate Palace. The Serdang Sultanate is one of the Malay Sultanates of East Sumatra, a fraction of the Deli Sultanate, which is centered in the Province of North Sumatra. The establishment of the Serdang Sultanate Palace began when Tuanku Umar Johan Pahlawan Alam Shah Vocational Junjungan built the Tanjung Puteri Palace. Tuanku Umar was the first Sultan of Serdang to build the Tanjung Puteri Palace in 1750. The Serdang Sultanate Palace is a relic of the Sultanate that was previously built to be a resting place or throne for the Serdang Sultanate at that time, in addition to being a resting place, the Serdang Sultanate Palace was also a place to perform various activities. Activities and government systems in carrying out any activities that are closely related to the Sultanate. This research uses the historical method with an archaeological approach. The historical method is used to describe events that occurred in the past. The archaeological approach is used to find information about the relics of the Serdang Sultanate Palace as historical relics. According to Grahme Clark, who wrote his theory in Archeology and Society, archeology is a systematic study of ancient objects as a tool to reconstruct the past.

The Adat Aceh

ABSTRACT After the fall of Melaka to the Portuguese in 1511, Aceh began to assert itself as a formidable Malay sultanate. After annexing Pasai and its neighbouring polities in 1524, Aceh gradually replaced Melaka as the centre of the Malay world. The Aceh sultanate held elaborate ceremonies and celebrations, which involved the playing of music in street processions as part of its royal adat or customs. This was seen as an important visual and aural representation of the ruler’s authority and presence towards not only its people and other regional sultanates, but also foreign visitors. The nobat, a court musical ensemble, was central to a Malay royal institution, revered for its mystical powers and ability to consolidate and maintain socio-political order. The use of the nobat and other instruments in the Acehnese court ceremonies was documented in a 17th-century text called the Adat Aceh (Customs of Aceh). This article looks into the text and its musical content, supported by European accounts, in analysing the important role of music in the adat and istiadat of the Acehnese court.

Effective i-360 Virtual Museum Tour: Guideline for Elements of Mise-en-Scene from Video Content

The i360 Virtual Museum Tour was developed as a facilitator for Topic 5 Mise-en-Scene and Semiotic Elements in the module DVV3013 Film Studies at the Department of Design and Visual Communication, Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin Polytechnic, Perlis. In terms of location selection, costumes, makeup, lighting, and actor expression, these Mise-en-scene elements include the function of a scene in the film to explain something or give a dramatic effect to the audience. This application displays the Malaysian race through the Iconography element Mise-en-scene of the background, costumes, and props highlighted as part of the Malay sultanate concept before. It was developed using a 360 camera as well as 3D vista software for editing purposes. Exploring this museum involves four main aspects, namely information related to learning at the Kedah State Museum and the Kedah Royal Museum and the quiz elements as an assessment. Design Thinking Process (Empathies, Define, Ideate, Prototype and Test) is used as a methodology for design and development process. Thirty-five diploma students (51.4% men, 48.6% of women) responded to the questionnaire. Based on analysis data shown this application is beneficial to know and recognize the elements of Mise-en-Scene the higher-level percentage of 93.0%.

AKHLAK PEMIMPIN BERDASARKAN TEKS SULALATUS SALATIN

The grandeur of the Malaccan Malay Sultanate was written in Sulalatus Salatin, a name that means the genealogy of the Sultans. This text has been acknowledged as a great work and was made the reference for scholars in various studies on the Malaccan Sultanate. Until this day the text is still being studied since there a great wealth of information that is yet to be explored. The objective of this paper is to identify and elaborate, by using the Takmilah Theory, morals of the leaders of the Malaccan Malay Sultanate written in Sulalatus Salatin. The qualitative method, which is the descriptive analysis method on a text that is based on the Takmilah Theory, will be used in this study. Sulalatus Salatin contains procedures in creating a leader; it is laden with knowledge on leadership and other related knowledge such as on administration. In addition, this text provides guidance by means of messages and also gives examples of specific values owned by a particular group of society. Hence the narrations in Sulalatus Salatin were written in an exquisite and outstanding manner. From the literary standpoint, Sulalatus Salatin was recognized as an encyclopedia of knowledge that documented experiences and aspirations of a nation, which are the Malays. The ambitions of the nation which were upheld were successfully realised by several reigning rulers of the Malaccan Malay Sultanate. The Malaccan Malay Sultanate has become an empire and the prominent centre of Islam for two decades.

Royal Palace Location: The Case of The Sultanate of Perak

Perak’s Malay Sultanate is known to have the longest root in the Malaysian Sultanate tradition with the most numbers of Sultans (35). Interestingly, 27 of them built a new palace, each for themselves, rather than using the inherited ones. However, those 27 locations of the royal palaces of the Perak’s Malay Sultanate are yet to be identified and recorded. This has called upon the needs to conduct a preliminary investigation on those locations based on scrutiny of secondary data (theoretically through old manuscripts and historical writings) and primary data (empirically through interviewing local people and utilising GIS technology). Analysis based on the data triangulations hence would provide a scientific and systematic inventory of the royal palaces of Perak’s Malay Sultanate.

ISYU KETUANAN MELAYU DI MALAYSIA

Ketuanan Melayu” is a conception of Malay political hegemony in Malaysia. The terminology was firstly introduced by a member of Parliament of Malaysia from the United Malay National Organization, namely Dato’ Abdullah Ahmad, in a speech offered at the Institute of Intenational Affairs, Singapura, Agustus 30, 1986. The speech was originally aimed at countering the negative propaganda proposed by the Malaysian Indian and the Malaysian Chinese, who accused that the special socio-political privileges given to the indigenous Malaysian peoples in the Malaysia’s Constitution (partaicularly in article 153) and the affirmative discriminative New Economic Policy of 1971 have been a servere strategy to condemn the Indian and Chinese Malaysians. On the other hand, the Malays in Malaysia traced the idea of Malay political hegemony from the political situation in the period of Malay kingdom of Melaka in the 15th century. They considered the period of Melaka as the golden age of Malay political sovereignty in Selat Melaka. When Melaka was occupied by the Portuegese in the 16th century, and followed by the Dutch in the 17-18th centuries, the political sovereignty of the Malays in the Malaysian Peninsula was carried on by the newly subsequent Malay kingdoms, such as Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, and others. In this article, I proposed that what is now called Malay political hegemony could be compared to what was called beschikkingsrecht in Dutch language, in the colonial period of Indonesia. This terminology was introduced by an adat law scholar, van Vollenhoven, in 1905, referring to the sovereignty of the native peoples in Malay Archipelago over their land and political state. Lastly I find the debate on the Malay political hegemony in Malaysia recently, whether between the natives versus the immigrants, or between the ruling Malays versus the opposition Malays, are pertaining with 6 articles in the Constitution and Act of Malaysian Armforce of 1972. This set of rules is knownly called Wasiat Raja-raja Melayu (The Wasiat of the Malay Sultans). Therefore, I conclude, the Malay political hegemony is constitutionalized, thus it is unnecessary for the Malays to boasting it anymore. The real problems of the Malay political hegemony now in Malaysia rests on the way it has been implemented by the Malaysian government.

Images of Makkah and the Hajj in South Thailand: An Ethnographic and Theological Exploration

This article explores the historical and contemporary importance of Makkah and the hajj for Malays in South Thailand. Our multi-disciplinary approach examines relevant historiographies, the insights of Islamic Studies scholars, and ethnographic data collected in Pattani’s provincial capital. We point out that in the outputs produced by literary networks located in Sumatra and the portion of Thai/Malay Peninsula once referred to as the Malay Sultanate of Pattani, references to Makkah were early to appear. Malays from Pattani may have primarily travelled to Makkah to perform the hajj, but following Pattani’s subjugation by Bangkok in the late 18th century, Makkah functioned as a refuge. Following a description of the prerequisites, preparations, and performances of the hajj in present-day Pattani, we identify and discuss motivations of fulfilment, forgiveness, and merit-making. We argue through our exploration of these historical, ethnographic, and theological factors that Makkah is much more than a site of pilgrimage, and that the performance of hajj is multi-faceted.

Changes of Form of Malay Traditional Houses in Medan and Surroundings

Malay Architecture is one of the architectures that developed in Medan City and its surroundings. Malay ethnicity has existed and developed in this area marked by the presence of the Deli Malay Sultanate whose Kingdom capital is in Medan. With the existence of this Sultanate, the existence of Malay architecture is getting stronger and influencing the community, especially for the Malay community. This article aims to look at the development of Malay architecture nowadays with various influences that come from everywhere. This influence is certainly related to the form of this building which changes follow the times. Observation locations are in Medan and its surrounding areas, namely Langkat and Serdang Bedagai. Qualitative methods are used to see physical facts in the field which are corroborated by the questionnaire as a form of respondents’ expressions. The results obtained are some changes to the building caused by the variety of activities owned by residents of the house so that it requires space that affect the changes in the form and function of the building. Overall, the building owner still maintains the characteristics of Malay traditional architecture, especially the use of ornaments or decoration on the building.

THE DERIVATION OF URBAN DESIGN PRINCIPLES IN MALAY-ISLAMIC TOWN OF KUALA TERENGGANU

Islam took root in the Malay Sultanate kingdom when trade flourished through the Straits of Malacca and the South China Sea. Islamic teaching was accepted by the locals and Islam became the country’s official religion. Islam has been assimilated in the way of life of the Malays, including the physical built environment of its cities. However, after colonisation, many of the Malay town structure had changed tremendously following the western planning. Remnants of the Malay-Islamic state footprint can still be traced in the town of Kuala Terengganu. This paper aims to establish the urban design principles influenced by the Islamic values which are embedded in and characterised in Kuala Terengganu. Employing a qualitative method, secondary and primary data (observation using photography) were collected. Content analysis were conducted on the observation data, archival documents, historical literatures and morphological study on Kuala Terengganu Town and triangulated with the literature on principles gathered from the characteristic of Islamic cities. The findings revealed that Kuala Terengganu has similar characteristics to other Islamic cities however it is translated in the local context. The comparison revealed fifteen Urban Design principles related to the Malay-Islamic Town of Kuala Terengganu that are well-assimilated and embedded within the local culture, geography and climate for the reference of future city planners.

The Revitalization of Malay Sultanate Culture Arts through Mapping as an Asset for Tourism Development in North Sumatra

Art and cultural products in Deli Serdang Regency, Batubara Regency, and Tanjung Balai City are inseparable from the Malay kingdom sites that were established at the time. The Malay kingdom was led by the sultan, usually marked by the establishment of the palace as a sign of the grandeur and sovereignty of the king and all his relatives, which then made the palace a place to live, consult, and decide on an event. In addition to the splendor of the palace, various arts and cultural products that became symbols of local wisdom became part of his time, but nowadays various art and cultural products are considered to have no maximum implementation and distribution to the younger generation as holders of cultural relay batons. So that these products are not extinct, they need the attention of the entire community, government, and stakeholders. One way to bring it back is to revitalize it by developing it into a tourist dish. This study aims to: Know the condition of art and culture, cultural potential, in the three regions of the Malay sultanate, and the efforts of the government, artists in revitalizing the potential of art and culture. The research method used is descriptive qualitative, with data collection in the form of, mapping, interviews, and observations. The results of the study explained that each of Serdang, Batubara, and Tanjungbalai Sultanates had potentials that could characterize their regions, there were: Serdang Sultanate with Makyong arts, Tanjungbalai Sultanate with Gubang arts, and Batubara Sultanate had the story and Lima Laras palace. These three potentials can be developed into cultural tourism attractions in the region and North Sumatra. This requires the creativity of artists in developing them from every aspect. Government intervention also becomes necessary in sustaining the existence of cultural arts by making policies that sustain the art and culture. In addition, for the cultural actors can develop professionalism in accordance with their field of expertise.

Existence of Melaka Malay (Fort) City Based on First Painting of A’Famosa by The Portuguese

The Melaka Malay City during Malay Sultanate era often mentioned in historical writing of Malay world as one of the great, majestic and powerful Malay cities. The city’s context of this paper defined as the administrative area of the Melaka Malay government before the Portuguese colonization in 1511. Its existence is still doubtful since there is no clear physical evidence as basis support to its existence. Thus, this study aims to identify historical evidence that mentioned its existence which based on the first painting of A’Famosa (Melaka Fort City during Portuguese era). The scope focuses only on the physical building (which is believed to be historical evidence) of the city at the Melaka River’s estuary. The method focused on this paper is through historical sources, scientific writing, previous studies globally as well as relevant scientific records. This research trying to prove that the city indeed exists in historical writing and the city was a square-shaped which fit in the philosophy and Malay’s way of life. The implication of this study can be a catalyst for continuous and deeper research on the original site of the Melaka Malay City as to prove the validity of its existences. This paper expected to serve as a basis for further research using satellite mapping technologies to know and understand the existence, position and layout of the city. In conclusion, first painting of A’Famosa shows the design was in square or rectangular shape as it was built on the site of the Great Mosque of Melaka. The rectangular fort design was synonym with the design of other Malay forts or cities as rectangular design was a fundamental design tradition in the Malay world. Hence, the city existence should be examined to rebuild the knowledge of Melaka and Malay civilization.

The Code of Conduct (Adab) for Rulers in Two Malay Masterpieces

The aim of this paper was to explain about the code of conduct (adab) as described in the Malay literary masterpiece, the Taj Us Salatin (Mahkota Raja-Raja), and to compare it with the famous epic Malay text, the Hikayat Iskandar Zulkarnain. The Taj Us Salatin (Mahkota Raja-Raja), a well-known literary work on constitutionalism written by Bukhari Al-Jauhari, was used by the Malay rulers as a guidebook on governance, starting from the time of Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah in Acheh in the 17th century until the time of Sultan Hussein Syah of the Johore-Singapore Sultanate in the 19th century. All the procedures of government were comprehensively recorded in this book by the author. As a result, a prominent figure, Iskandar Zulkarnain, who was both a great ruler and warrior, was said to be the first in a royal line of Malay sultans, as recorded in historiographic works. Hence, this noble figure was often highly esteemed in most of the literary works and, in fact, this manifestation was even assumed to validate the sovereignty of a kingly dynasty in the Malay World. The question is, were the guidelines for rulers, as recorded in the Taj Us Salatin, in line with the code of conduct (adab) for rulers and warriors in the epic Hikayat Iskandar Zulkarnain? Therefore, by doing a text analysis of the Taj Us Salatin (Mahkota Raja-Raja) and the Hikayat Iskandar Zulkarnain, this paper compared the connection and link in the characterisation of the code of conduct (adab) for rulers between both texts. This study makes an important contribution, especially in enhancing the contribution of the Malay masterpiece, the Taj Us Salatin (Mahkota Raja-Raja), as a constitutional literature containing highly valuable knowledge, and Iskandar Zulkarnain as a famous Malay ruler and warrior. In summary, the code of conduct (adab) of a ruler was reflected in the stability and peace that prevailed in a country, so much so that this element was given serious emphasis in most of the genres of traditional Malay literature.

MELAKA MALAY CITY BEFORE 1511 BASED ON PORTUGUESE SKETCHES

MELAKA MALAY CITY BEFORE 1511 BASED ON PORTUGUESE SKETCHES

Letters from the Malay Sultanates of the 17th and 18th Centuries: An Unknown Collection in St. Petersburg

AbstractThis article deals with Malay letters and documents from the archives of the Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie—VOC), dating to the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The collection of “golden” Malay letters, which belonged to the governor- general of the VOC in Java (1704–1709) Joan van Hoorn, made a long voyage on the shipSandenburgfrom Batavia to Cape Town and Amsterdam in 1710. Its cultural and historical value was firstly estimated by the outstanding Russian scholar and antiquarian N. P. Likhachev, who purchased it for the Paleographical Museum in Petrograd (St. Petersburg) in 1910. The pages of the fifty-seven diplomatic letters cover one of the most controversial periods of VOC history on the Archipelago, 1683 to 1710, the establishment of its relationships with local nobility and states. The collection represents the original letters of the sultans of Palembang, Gowa, Buton, Bone, Tallo, Banten, and Cirebon, and of prominent historical figures of Malay states as well as the famous Indian merchant from Surat, Abdul Ghafur. They are written in Malay (in Arabic graphic: Jawi and Pegon), Arabic, Javanese (in two scripts: Pegon and Carakan), Dutch, Spanish, Persian, and Chinese. Their investigation will contribute to the academic scholarship on the famous records, reconstructing the history of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) on the Malay Archipelago, and on the peculiarities of Malay letter writing in different languages, scripts, and regions.

Policy of Sultan of Langkat in Managing and Keeping the Environment of Langkat Area

Long before modern regulations on the environment were implemented, Malay sultanates on the East Coast of Sumatra had made regulations that protect, manage and preserve the environment within their territories. One of the sultanates that has these regulations is the Langkat Sultanate. Environmental management in the Langkat Sultanate includes protection and management of forests, river protection, and prohibition of logging certain types of trees and protecting animals. How does the Sultan of Langkat protect and manage the environment? What kind of environment is protected and managed by the Sultan of Langkat? These questions will be discussed in writing. This paper uses archival sources and publications during the colonial government in the Netherlands in Langkat and the rules of the Sultan of Langkat itself about environmental management and protection. This paper aims to describe how traditional governance including the Langkat Sultanate has managed and maintained the environment well.

Islam in Southeast Asia: Negotiating Modernity ed. by Norshahril Saat

Reviewed by: Islam in Southeast Asia: Negotiating Modernity ed. by Norshahril Saat Nazirah Lee Islam in Southeast Asia: Negotiating Modernity Norshahril Saat (ed.) ISEAS Publishing–Yusof Ishak Institute, Singapore, 2018. Islam in Southeast Asia: Negotiating Modernity is a compilation of eight articles that offers new insights on the dynamic developments which have taken place within Muslim society in Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore. The authors of the chapters—academics and researchers with proven prowess in their respective fields—present articles that offer in-depth explanations of the developments in the subject of their choice. This book, according to the editor, Norshahril Saat, is an attempt to elucidate the impact of the developments of the Middle East on the Muslims in Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore, especially in the sphere of contemporary socio-cultural factors and politics. The editor also informs readers that 'Southeast Asia' in the title is limited to the three countries considered to be the bastion of modest Islam in the region: Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore. Issues related to the Muslims in Thailand, the Philippines and Burma are intentionally neglected. Also, discussions and analyses presented in the book encompass only circumstances and progression prior to 2015 as the book contains selected papers from a workshop held in Singapore in 2015. This book contains three sections segregated by country, with three articles on Muslims in Malaysia in the first section, four articles on Indonesia in the second [End Page 114] section, and an article on Singapore in the final section. Articles in each section enable readers to understand that the Muslims in the region have been influenced by their fellow Muslims in the Middle East, as well as those in their own region. The intertwined relationships of Muslims and non-Muslims, as well as the dichotomy between traditionalists and modernists, as demonstrated in the arguments of each chapter, enable the reader to appreciate the uniqueness of the developments in each country. In the first section on Malaysia, discussions focus on the issues correlated to political spheres, mufti, and the influence of Saudi Arabia on Malaysia. In the discussion on the emergence of progressive Islamists in Chapter 2, the author argues that progressive Islamist ideas will grow in Malaysia, even though he recognizes that the conservatives remain the majority in the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS). In summary, a study on PAS suggests that prior to 2015, conservatives had won the heart of its members. A similar trajectory can be observed in the following chapter. The author argues that the degree of Arabization has increased over the years, as depicted by the growth of conservatism among Muslims. The argument is strengthened through the observation of mufti, who are responsible for the religious departments of Malaysian states. The conservative factions appear to have the upper hand. This circumstance arose from the attitude adopted by Malay sultans, who remain key in defining the political behaviour of some Malaysian mufti. Hence, the author suggests that, compared to the local factors, developments in the Middle East havr little significant role in this occurrence. Meanwhile, the following chapter suggests a different course of development in Malaysia. In the discussion on the relationship between Saudi Arabia and Malaysia, the author demonstrates that the former had influenced the government of Malaysia on a few occasions. Malaysia has also shown a lenient attitude towards Wahhabism, with the approval and acknowledgement of Al-Madinah International University (MEDIU) as an Islamic university. According to the author, this tolerant and compassionate approach arises from the need for financial aid and oil money from Saudi Arabia. The discussion in section two begins with a chapter that scrutinizes the influence of the Middle East on campuses in Indonesia. The author suggests that such influence has its origin in various countries, such as Egypt, Tunisia, Libya, Turkey, Syria as well as Iran. In consequence, numerous movements were founded in Indonesia, and Muslims in the country continue to be divided into groups based on their perception of the movements in the Middle East. The author demonstrates that Islamic movements have enriched contemporary Islam in Indonesia yet have also deepened hostilities within Indonesian society. The following chapter illustrates that the influence of the Middle East also comes through...