Makalu Barun Research Articles

The expansion and migration of small mammals in the Makalu Barun region induced by changes of the Himalayan environment during the Quaternary

This paper describes the course of migration and expansion of small mammals in the Makalu Barun region influenced by the orogenetic uplift of the East Nepal Himalaya and climatically conditioned changes in the extent of morphogenetic zones from the Upper Pleistocene up to the present. The results of zoological and parasitological research are compounded with the knowledge of the dynamic development of landforms, which testifies to significant changes in the high-mountain environment during the Quaternary. The migration of Palearctic species of small mammals across the gradually emerging orographical barrier during the orogenesis of the High Himalaya was completely interrupted by the glaciation in the Upper Pleistocene. This extensive glaciation also excluded occurrence and survival of small mammals in the high-mountain valleys of the Makalu Barun region. Migration routes and the extension of the territory of small mammals remained open only in the periglacial zone of the Arun and Barun Khola valleys. Following the interstadial period of warmer and humid climate conditions were changed by the Late Glacial Maximum when small mammals were again pushed away from heavily glaciated valleys to the lower altitude periglacial zone. During the Holocene interglacial, the occurrence of fauna and flora in the high-mountain valleys depended on repeated spatial changes of periglacial and glacial morphoclimatic zones. Current biogeographical hazards are accentuated due to the rapid retreat of glaciers, the expansion of the periglacial morphoclimatic zone and the increased human impact in the High Himalaya.

Occurrence of bats in protected areas of Nepal: An update on species richness and distribution records

Bat surveys in 20 Protected Areas (PAs) of Nepal are sporadic and/or had targeted purposively a few localities, therefore, bat diversity from the PAs is yet to be explored. Bat species richness in PAs from two reviews until 2011 are inconsistent. In total, seven surveys have been undertaken in six PAs since 2011. Hence, an update and revision on chiropteran account from the PAs of Nepal is warranted. We reviewed available literatures and museum collection records, and further collated and plotted bat occurrence coordinates into the country and mapped them. In total, 44 of 53 bat species in Nepal have been recorded from 12 PAs. Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA) reports highest species richness (22) followed by Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park and Buffer Zone (SNNP & BZ) (15), Makalu Barun National Park and Buffer Zone (MBNP & BZ) (14) and Chitwan National Park and Buffer Zone (CNP & BZ) (13). In contrast, survey localities are more in CNP & BZ (12), ACA and SNNP & BZ (equally 11) and MBNP & BZ (10). Species richness increased proportionately with higher survey efforts and including more habitat types in respective PAs. Three species: Rhinolophus ferrumequinum, Rh. pearsonii and Rh. sinicus are recorded from six out of 12 PAs. Pipistrellus javanicus (12), Hipposideros armiger (10), Cynopterus sphinx (9) and Rh. sinicus (9) are recorded from maximum number of surveyed localities in the PAs. All the PAs have limited occurrence records. Therefore, intensive surveys are recommended for understanding actual chiropteran diversity to the PAs of Nepal.

Mass wasting and erosion in different morphoclimatic zones of the Makalu Barun region, Nepal Himalaya

ABSTRACT Mountain regions of the world face unprecedented climate-induced changes and associated sustainable development challenges. Retreating glaciers, degrading permafrost and rapid mass movements on the one hand and glacier-related disasters, on the other hand, are the sentinels of these phenomena. In this study, we focus our attention on the Makalu Barun region in the Nepal Himalaya, and characterize four main morphoclimatic zones, building on repeated field surveys and interpretation of remote sensing imagery. We distinguish four distinct zones: (i) extreme glacial zone; (ii) glacial zone; (iii) periglacial zone; and (iv) seasonally cold/warm humid zone. While extreme glacial zone is stagnant in its area, remaining three zones have been experiencing areal/location changes associated with changing climate, glacier extent and permafrost distribution. We describe dominant geomorphic processes and typical landforms of these zones in detail, highlighting the role of mass wasting processes and far-reaching process chains acting across distinct morphoclimatic zones. The study provides evidence of very dynamic landform evolution which indicates extreme geomorphological hazards in the Nepal Himalaya.

Mapping habitat suitability for Asiatic black bear and red panda in Makalu Barun National Park of Nepal from Maxent and GARP models

Habitat evaluation is essential for managing wildlife populations and formulating conservation policies. With the rise of innovative powerful statistical techniques in partnership with Remote Sensing, GIS and GPS techniques, spatially explicit species distribution modeling (SDM) has rapidly grown in conservation biology. These models can help us to study habitat suitability at the scale of the species range, and are particularly useful for examining the overlapping habitat between sympatric species. Species presence points collected through field GPS observations, in conjunction with 13 different topographic, vegetation related, anthropogenic, and bioclimatic variables, as well as a land cover map with seven classification categories created by support vector machine (SVM) were used to implement Maxent and GARP ecological niche models. With the resulting ecological niche models, the suitable habitat for asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus) and red panda (Ailurus fulgens) in Nepal Makalu Barun National Park (MBNP) was predicted. All of the predictor variables were extracted from freely available remote sensing and publicly shared government data resources. The modeled results were validated by using an independent dataset. Analysis of the regularized training gain showed that the three most important environmental variables for habitat suitability were distance to settlement, elevation, and mean annual temperature. The habitat suitability modeling accuracy, characterized by the mean area under curve, was moderate for both species when GARP was used (0.791 for black bear and 0.786 for red panda), but was moderate for black bear (0.857), and high for red panda (0.920) when Maxent was used. The suitable habitat estimated by Maxent for black bear and red panda was 716 km2 and 343 km2 respectively, while the suitable area determined by GARP was 1074 km2 and 714 km2 respectively. Maxent predicted that the overlapping area was 83% of the red panda habitat and 40% of the black bear habitat, while GARP estimated 88% of the red panda habitat and 58% of the black bear habitat overlapped. The results of land cover exhibited that barren land covered the highest percentage of area in MBNP (36.0%) followed by forest (32.6%). Of the suitable habitat, both models indicated forest as the most preferred land cover for both species (63.7% for black bear and 61.6% for red panda from Maxent; 59.9% black bear and 58.8% for red panda from GARP). Maxent outperformed GARP in terms of habitat suitability modeling. The black bear showed higher habitat selectivity than red panda. We suggest that proper management should be given to the overlapping habitats in the buffer zone. For remote and inaccessible regions, the proposed methods are promising tools for wildlife management and conservation, deserving further popularization.

Species in peril: assessing the status of the trade in pangolins in Nepal

Pangolins are among the most widely traded taxa in the southeastern Asian illegal wildlife trade because of which they are at great risk of extinction. Yet, little is known of their trade status in Nepal. This research was carried out to unfold the status of pangolin trade in Sankhuwasava District of Nepal. We used mixed methods such as semi-structured questionnaire (n=75) and, focus group discussion (n=4) and key Informant Interview, (n=30) to assess the trade status. Seizure data (2009–2017) were gathered from law enforcement agencies to predict major trade routes. The major threat perceived was hunting especially by unemployed local youth and children. The majority of hunters were opportunistic. Sankhuwasava District has become both source and transit for the illegal pangolin trade rather than for local use. The involvement of non-timber forest product traders was high in the illegal trade business, however, there seems a rapid decline in the seizure of pangolin in the last two years, mainly because of the deployment of the Nepal army in the Makalu Barun National Park, which had long served as a major route to China. Thus, we recommend continuation of strong border security. Our study calls for capacity building of enforcement agencies for detailed investigation of seizure data. For sustainable conservation of pangolin and its habitat we recommend sustained conservation awareness programs in addition to alternative livelihood opportunity. Furthermore, formation of community based anti-poaching units followed by motivation, anti-poaching trainings, security assurance, and incentives for worthy conservation outcomes in pangolin-rich communities might aid in conservation.

Resource Assessment and Marketing of Caterpillar Fungus (Ophiocordyceps sinensis) in the Buffer Zone of Makalu Barun National Park, Nepal

Yarsagumba (Ophiocordycecps sinensis) is one of the highly expensive and potential medicinal mushrooms in the world. Owing to the herb's high efficacy and potency in curing various diseases, it is well known as an important nourishing tonic. The study has attempted to gather the information regarding Yarsagumba, its associated species, various medicinal uses, and marketing channel. Out of 15 plots, only 3 plots were recorded the Yarsagumba with the frequency of 0.2 which was very low compared to other medicinal plants. We randomly recorded the Yarsagumba with Mean and Variance ration of 0.04 with a density of 833 (No)/ha equal to 0.5 kg/ha in the effective area. There was an imbalance between the population of moths and spores of Caterpillar fungus. There were increasing trends of Cordyceps sinensis market, heavily depended on Chinese buyers. The Chinese companies send agents to collect Yarsagumba directly from the fields. And they pay US$ 10/piece to villagers (according to the latest field study, June 2018). China is the largest producer of Yarsagumba and meets 95 per cent of the world demand. Nepal is the second largest supplier of the fungus. Expansion of marketing channel is essential for getting more benefits focusing on local Yarsagumba`s collectors. It was observed that only 14.51 percent of men were participated to collect the Yarsagumba because the majority of men migrated to India and overseas for searching the jobs. Therefore, women would play a vital role in the sustainable harvesting of Yarsagumba. Different pharmacological actions such as antiasthma, antineoplastic, antibacterial as well as actions on the heart and blood vessels, and on the smooth muscles of the intestine and uterus have been reported. Government of Nepal should prepare a national Yarsagumba management policy and local Yarsagumba management guidelines to address conflicts by clearly defining the roles, responsibilities and rights of local institutions and actors. The Makalu Barun National Park should also prepare the separate management plan for sustainable harvesting so that local people would enhance their income, and the government would also increase income through royalties.

A rockfall-induced glacial lake outburst flood, Upper Barun Valley, Nepal

On April 20, 2017, a flood from the Barun River, Makalu-Barun National Park, eastern Nepal formed a 2–3-km-long lake at its confluence with the Arun River as a result of blockage by debris. Although the lake drained spontaneously the next day, it caused nationwide concern and triggered emergency responses. We identified the primary flood trigger as a massive rockfall from the northwest face of Saldim Peak (6388 m) which fell approximately 570 m down to the unnamed glacier above Langmale glacial lake, causing a massive dust cloud and hurricane-force winds. The impact also precipitated an avalanche, carrying blocks of rock and ice up to 5 m in diameter that plummeted a further 630 m down into Langmale glacial lake, triggering a glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF). The flood carved steep canyons, scoured the river’s riparian zone free of vegetation, and deposited sediment, debris, and boulders throughout much of the river channel from the settlement of Langmale to the settlement of Yangle Kharka about 6.5 km downstream. Peak discharge was estimated at 4400 ± 1800 m3 s−1, and total flood volume was estimated at 1.3 × 106 m3 of water. This study highlights the importance of conducting integrated field studies of recent catastrophic events as soon as possible after they occur, in order to best understand the complexity of their triggering mechanisms, resultant impacts, and risk reduction management options.

Habitat overlap between Asiatic black bear Ursus thibetanus and red panda Ailurus fulgens in Himalaya.

Studying habitat overlap between sympatric species is one of the best ways to identify interspecies relationships and to direct conservation efforts so that multiple species can benefit. However, studies exploring interspecies relationships are very limited in Nepal, making it difficult for the government of Nepal and conservation partners to manage wildlife in their habitats, especially in Himalayan protected areas. In this study, we identified habitat overlap between Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus) and red panda (Ailurus fulgens) as well as important habitat types for both species in the Makalu Barun National Park, Nepal using Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) modeling. GPS points of species occurrence were collected from the field, and environmental variables were extracted from freely available sources. We found that the study area contained 647 km2 of Asiatic black bear habitat and 443 km2 of the red panda habitat. 368 km2 supported both species, which constituted 57% of the Asiatic black bear habitat and 83% of the red panda habitat. We found that conifer forest was the most important habitat type for both species. Because the largest portions of both species’ habitat were located inside the buffer zone, a peripheral zone of national park, conservation efforts for these sympatric species should be focused inside the buffer zone to be most effective.

Predicting upslope expansion of sub-alpine forest in the Makalu Barun National Park, Eastern Nepal, with a hybrid cartographic model

The natural upper boundary of a forest (forest line) in mountain environments is an indicator of climate conditions. An increase in global average temperatures has resulted in an upward advance of the forest line. This advance may result in fragmentation of the alpine ecosystem and a loss of biodiversity. Therefore, it is important to identify potential areas where current forests can advance under scenarios of future climate change. I used expert knowledge and cartographic modeling to create a hybrid cartographic model considering five topographic variables to predict areas where forest line can expand in the future. The prediction accuracy of the model is around 82%. The model is able to predict areas above the current forest line that are suitable or unsuitable for future forest advance. Further inclusion of high-resolution satellite imagery and digital elevation models, as well as field-based information into the model can help to improve the model accuracy.

Population structure and dynamics of Abies spectabilis at treeline ecotone of Barun Valley, Makalu Barun National Park, Nepal

The population structure and dynamics of high altitude, long-lived treeline species can be utilized as an indicator for climate change. This study was conducted in the treeline ecotone of the Barun Valley, eastern Nepal in order to understand the population dynamics of Abies spectabilis. The A. spectabilis population showed the reverse J-shaped size and age distribution curves indicative of undisturbed old growth forest. The age structure is mostly dominated by the young individuals, however, their mortality was found to be very high. Positive relationships between recruitment and high temperatures during winter months (January, February and December) and one summer month (August) were discovered. No significant relationship was found between precipitation and climate of the region. If warming condition prevails in summer and winter seasons in the near future, then there is chance that more individuals will be established above the treeline area, triggering the treeline advance.

Contemporary and historic population structure of Abies spectabilis at treeline in Barun valley, eastern Nepal Himalaya

Treeline ecotone dynamics of Abies spectabilis (D. Don) Mirb. in the Barun valley, Makalu Barun National Park, eastern Nepal Himalaya were studied by establishing seven plots (20 m × variable length) from the forestline to the tree species limit: three plots on the south- and north-facing slopes each (S1–S3, N1–N3), and one plot on the east-facing slope (E) in the relatively undisturbed forests. A dendroecological method was used to study treeline advance rate and recruitment pattern. In all the plots, most trees established in the early 20th century, and establishment in the second half of the 20th century was confined to the forestline area. Treeline position has not advanced substantially in the Barun valley, with only 22 m average elevational shift in the last 130 years, and with average current shifting rate of 14 cm/yr. Moreover, no significant relationship was found between tree age and elevation on the south-, north-, and east-facing slopes. The number of seedlings and saplings in near the treeline area was negligible compared to that near the forestline area. Therefore, A. spectabilis treeline response to the temperature change was slow, despite the increasing temperature trend in the region. Beside the temperature change, factors such as high inter-annual variability in temperature, dense shrub cover, and local topography also play an important role in treeline advance and controlling recruitment pattern above the treeline.

Glacial lakes of the Hinku and Hongu valleys, Makalu Barun National Park and Buffer Zone, Nepal

In recent decades, many of the larger glaciers in the Himalaya and Andes that have experienced increased melting have become glacial lakes. Some of these lakes present a risk of glacial lake outburst floods that can unleash stored lake water and eroded debris, often causing enormous devastation downstream. Many of these new glacial lakes have formed in the Mt. Everest and Makalu Barun National Parks of Nepal, nine of which in the remote Hinku and Hongu valleys have been designated as “potentially dangerous” based on remote sensing analyses. Until recently, however, relatively little ground-based information was available for these lakes, including their physical characteristics, danger level, prospective downstream impacts in the event of an outburst, and mitigation methods appropriate and applicable to remote regions within the Nepal Himalaya. This paper describes three separate, interdisciplinary expeditions to the Hinku and Hongu valleys between 2009 and 2012 that were designed to close these information gaps. Each expedition combined remote sensing with field-based analyses, repeat photography, interviews with local people, bathymetric surveys, ground penetrating radar, and flood modeling. Eight of the “potentially dangerous” lakes surveyed were found to be stable, and one that had escaped mention in previous studies (L464) was found to contain a high risk of an outburst flood. In the data-deficient high mountain world, we suggest that the combined use of sophisticated remote sensing and modeling technologies with traditional, field-based methods can provide the most thorough understanding of glacial lakes possible at this time, including the actual risks that they pose as well as the most appropriate and community-based risk reduction strategies.

A new species of Swertia L. (Gentianaceae) from Nepal

Swertia barunensis P. Chassot sp. nov. from Nepal is described and illustrated. It was collected in 1997 in an alpine meadow in the Makalu Barun National Park at an elevation of 4200 m. It belongs to Swertia section Macranthos T.-N. Ho & S.-W. Liu and resembles S. pseudohookeri H. Smith, from which it differs mainly by the shape of the nectary and the exomorphic seed structure. A key to all the species of sect. Macranthos is provided. The affinities of S. barunensis with some other taxa in the subtribe Swertiinae (Griseb.) Rchb. are also briefly discussed. © 2003 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2003, 141, 389–394.

Using satellite remote sensing for DEM extraction in complex mountainous terrain: Landscape analysis of the Makalu Barun National Park of eastern Nepal

The design and management of national parks and other protected areas requires a broad base of physiographic and geo-ecological information about the landscape. This paper evaluates the effectiveness of satellite remote sensing for photogrammetric stereo-mapping and digital elevation model (DEM) extraction within remote mountainous terrain. As a case study, a landscape analysis of the Makalu Barun National Park and Conservation Area of east Nepal (27.5° N, 87.0° E) was examined. The study area is a highly complex and rugged mountain landscape, with extreme topographic relief and an elevation gradient spanning more than 8300 m. A DEM extracted from stereo SPOT imagery resulted in a median disagreement of 58 m when compared to a DEM generated from a conventionally digitized GIS dataset of topographic contours (scale=1:250 000). Visual comparison of the two DEMs showed substantial agreement at the landscape scale, while larger scale comparison of 100 m contours revealed some localized differences. The SPOT extracted DEM provided equal or better basis for orthorectification of satellite imagery when compared to the conventional DEM. Derivative landscape analysis outputs, such as hydrological modelling, drainage networks and watershed boundaries, compared well with results based upon the conventional dataset. Intermediate map products useful for field research and mapping included production of an orthorectified satellite base-map image. Additionally, a fused multisensor high resolution image of the study area, combining Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) and SPOT imagery at 10 m resolution, was orthorectified to produce a false-colour satellite image map highlighting the spectral discrimination between land cover classes.

Structure, composition and community ordination of tropical monsoon forest within the Makalu Barun Conservation Area of eastern Nepal

Structure, composition and community ordination of tropical monsoon forest within the Makalu Barun Conservation Area of eastern Nepal

Land Cover Change Along Tropical and Subtropical Riparian Corridors Within the Makalu Barun National Park and Conservation Area, Nepal

Low elevation riparian forests found within the Middle Hills of Nepal are both essential biological habitats and important resources for local subsistence farmers. Forming networks of habitat patches within the primarily agricultural matrix of the Middle Hills, these forests are repositories of a rich biological diversity. Dynamics of forest change along riparian corridors were investigated within the newly established Makalu Barun National Park and Conservation Area (MBCA) of eastern Nepal, based on a comparison of remote sensing data over a 20-year interval. Multispectral analysis and a supervised classification of Landsat TM (1992) and Landsat MSS (1972) data estimate approximately 7000 ha of low elevation riparian forests within the study area. Change detection analysis estimates based on the respective supervised classifications reveal little significant change in extent of the tropical and subtropical zone riparian forests. More impact was evident toward the upper elevational limits of the study area. A 4% (approximately 300 ha) loss of cover within areas previously designated as forest is estimated. For all areas in the study area, a net loss of forest of 11% is estimated. Land use is shown to be highly dynamic, with significant internal trading between land use classes. The important role of riparian corridors in biodiversity conservation within the Middle Hills of east Nepal is discussed. Further research on biodiversity within these patches and a specific recognition of the value of remnant riparian forests within the landscape and rural economy are required if conservation goals for the eastern Nepal Himalaya are to be met.

Local attitudes toward community-based conservation policy and programmes in Nepal: a case study in the Makalu-Barun Conservation Area

Community-based conservation (CBC) has been projected as the most practical approach to stem biodiversity loss in developing countries. Since CBC is 'people-centred' and experience with it is relatively new, it is important to know the views of local communities regarding implemented policies and programmes. This paper examines the attitudes of local communities toward policy and programmes implemented by a project under the CBC approach in the Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area of Nepal, based on a 1996 survey of 400 people living in it.Overall, respondents did not have a particularly favourable perception of the community development programmes implemented. Strong support existed for ecotourism development in the Conservation Area. Respondents overwhelmingly endorsed community forestry. Wildlife protection remained a low priority amongst a significant majority of respondents. Some demographic and socio-economic factors exerted important influences on the attitudes of respondents. This study suggests that the project should continue addressing local development needs, encourage women's participation in community forestry, work toward dispute settlement of community forest-user groups, and allow hunting of pest wild animals, if it wants to win the support of local communities for long-term biodiversity conservation goals.

Historical and Contemporary Human Disturbance in the Upper Barun Valley, Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area, East Nepal

Results of a 1991 field investigation of the nature and extent of historical and contemporary human disturbance in the upper Barun valley, Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area, Nepal, are presented. Forest structure, soils, pollen analysis, 14C dating of buried wood samples, historical documents, and contemporary land-use trends of herders and mountaineering/trekking groups were assessed. Historical religious texts suggest that pilgrims may have been visiting sacred sites in the valley since the 14th century. Genealogical records indicate that regular seasonal grazing may have commenced in the 17th century with the easterly migration of the Sherpa people from the Solukhumbu region. Results of pollen analysis and '4C dating suggest that historical anthropogenic disturbances in a dynamic environment, including the possibility of regular burning in a presumed attempt to increase pasture area, could have played significant roles in modifying the upper Barun valley landscapes. A corridor of disturbance related to contemporary indigenous and tourist use (tree harvesting, burning, grazing) was observed along the main valley trail, and impacts appeared to be growing in frequency and magnitude. Increased monitoring of these impacts is recommended, and priority research areas are identified. Support for, and monitoring of, existing park management policies which seek to recognize the rights of traditional users are also suggested as providing the most promising mechanisms for the sustainable conservation of the upper Barun valley's unique physical, cultural, and spiritual attributes.

Forest Ecology of the Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area, Nepal

Forest Ecology of the Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area, Nepal

Mountains, nations, parks, and conservation

Between 1985 and 1991, two new mountain protected areas (MTNPA) covering more than 35,000 km2 and based on participatory management models — the Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area, Nepal, and Qomolangma Nature Preserve, Tibet Autonomous Region — were successfully established through the collaborative efforts of Woodlands Mountain Institute and conservationists in China and Nepal. Characteristics common to both projects include the importance of establishing (1) effective rationales, (2) local support constituencies, (3) a senior advisory group, (4) a task force, (5) linkages between conservation and development, and (6) fund raising mechanisms. The lessons derived from the experiences of Woodlands Mountain Institute are of significant value to others in preserving MTNPA. Increased collaboration and communication between all interested in conservation, however, will remain a critical component for expanding mountain protected area coverage to throughout the world.