Major Zoonosis Research Articles

Plasmid DNA Prime/Protein Boost Vaccination against Campylobacter jejuni in Broilers: Impact of Vaccine Candidates on Immune Responses and Gut Microbiota.

Campylobacter infections, traced to poultry products, are major bacterial foodborne zoonoses, and vaccination is a potential solution to reduce these infections. In a previous experimental trial using a plasmid DNA prime/recombinant protein boost vaccine regimen, two vaccine candidates (YP437 and YP9817) induced a partially protective immune response against Campylobacter in broilers, and an impact of the protein batch on vaccine efficacy was suspected. This new study was designed to evaluate different batches of the previously studied recombinant proteins (called YP437A, YP437P and YP9817P) and to enhance the immune responses and gut microbiota studies after a C. jejuni challenge. Throughout the 42-day trial in broilers, caecal Campylobacter load, specific antibodies in serum and bile, the relative expression of cytokines and β-defensins, and caecal microbiota were assessed. Despite there being no significant reduction in Campylobacter in the caecum of vaccinated groups, specific antibodies were detected in serum and bile, particularly for YP437A and YP9817P, whereas the production of cytokines and β-defensins was not significant. The immune responses differed according to the batch. A slight change in microbiota was demonstrated in response to vaccination against Campylobacter. The vaccine composition and/or regimen must be further optimised.

A Multi-landscape Assessment of Leptospira Prevalence on a Diversity of Small Mammals.

Leptospirosis is a major zoonotic disease, especially in the tropics, and rodents were known to be carriers of this bacterium. There was established information on Leptospira prevalence among animal reservoirs in human-dominated landscapes from previous literature. However, there was very little focus given comparing the prevalence of Leptospira in a wide range of habitats. An extensive sampling of small mammals from various landscapes was carried out, covering oil palm plantations, paddy fields, recreational forests, semi-urbans, and wet markets in Peninsular Malaysia. This study aims to determine the prevalence of pathogenic Leptospira in a diversity of small mammals across different landscapes. Cage-trapping was deployed for small mammals' trappings, and the kidneys of captured individuals were extracted, for screening of pathogenic Leptospira by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using LipL32 primer. Eight microhabitat parameters were measured at each study site. Out of 357 individuals captured, 21 (5.9%) were positive for pathogenic Leptospira of which recreational forest had the highest prevalence (8.8%) for landscape types, whereas Sundamys muelleri shows the highest prevalence (50%) among small mammals' species. Microhabitat analysis reveals that rubbish quantity (p < 0.05) significantly influenced the Leptospira prevalence among small mammals. Furthermore, nMDS analysis indicates that the presence of faeces, food waste, and exposure to humans in each landscape type also were linked with high prevalence of pathogenic Leptospira among the small mammals. This study supplements previous studies on pathogenic Leptospira prevalence across different landscape types, and the major microhabitat factors associated with Leptospira prevalence. This information is crucial for epidemiological surveillance and habitat management to curb the possibility of the disease outbreaks.

A One Health approach to mitigate the impact of influenza A virus (IAV) reverse zoonosis is by vaccinating humans and susceptible farmed and pet animals.

The term reverse zoonosis specifically refers to the natural transmission of disease and infection from humans to animals, with humans as the reservoir host replicating the infectious agent. In the last 20 years, reverse zoonosis has increasingly garnered attention because of human disease outbreaks. In this Currents in One Health article, the author will review host range as the main risk factor for reverse zoonosis, with an emphasis on influenza A virus (IAV) disease events in humans and other species in the context of a "One Health" approach to gain a better understanding of their transmission routes to facilitate their control and prevent them from occurring. The human-to-pig transmission of IAV represents the largest reverse zoonosis of a pathogen documented to date. At the same time, the 2022 farmed mink outbreak in Spain is the most sustained mammal-to-mammal transmission of the highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 since its re-emergence in humans in 2003. Without any prospect of eradicating IAVs, the best way to mitigate the impact of IAV reverse zoonosis is by vaccinating humans and susceptible farmed and pet animals. The recent major reverse zoonoses involving other virus groups (Coronaviridae, Poxviridae, arboviruses, and the human respiratory viruses transmitted to endangered non-human primate species) and the prevention and control of reverse zoonoses are addressed in the companion Currents in One Health by Kibenge, JAVMA, June 2023.

Seroexposure to Zoonotic Anaplasma and Borrelia in Dogs and Horses That Are in Contact with Vulnerable People in Italy.

Equine and canine anaplasmosis and borreliosis are major tick-borne zoonotic diseases caused by Anaplasma phagocytophilum and various species of Borrelia (the most important being Borrelia burgdorferi s.l.), respectively. This study evaluated the seroexposure to Anaplasma and Borrelia in dogs and horses used in Animal-Assisted Interventions or living in contact with children, elderly people or immunocompromised persons. A total of 150 horses and 150 dogs living in Italy were equally divided into clinically healthy animals and animals with at least one clinical sign compatible with borreliosis and/or anaplasmosis (present at clinical examination or reported in the medical history). Serum samples were tested with ELISA and immunoblot for the presence of antibodies against A. phagocytophilum and B. burgdorferi s.l., and the association between seropositivity and possible risk factors was analyzed using multivariate and univariate tests. Overall, 13 dogs (8.7%) and 19 horses (12.7%) were positive for at least one of the two pathogens. In addition, 1 dog (0.7%) and 12 horses (8%) were positive for antibodies against A. phagocytophilum, while 12 dogs (8.0%) and 10 horses (6.7%) had antibodies against B. burgdorferi s.l. Tick infestation in the medical history of the dogs was significantly associated with seropositivity to at least one pathogen (p = 0.027; OR 7.398). These results indicate that, in Italy, ticks infected with A. phagocytophilum and/or B. burgdorferi circulate in places where horses and dogs are in contact with people at risk of developing severe diseases. Awareness should be increased, and adequate control plans need to be developed to protect human and animal health, especially where vulnerable, at-risk individuals are concerned.

Brucellosis Surveillance and Control: A One Health Case Study

Abstract Brucellosis is one of the world’s major zoonoses ( Dean et al ., 2012a ). Human infection results mainly from direct contact with infected animals (often occupational exposure) or from the consumption of contaminated raw milk or dairy products (consumer exposure). Human brucellosis exposure can ultimately only be prevented by its elimination in animals. Control and elimination in the animal host are most effectively achieved by mass vaccination and, if possible, subsequent test-and-slaughter programmes ( Zinsstag et al ., 2011 ). Economic studies show that it is highly profitable for pastoral societies to eliminate brucellosis. The societal benefits are three times higher than the investment in the mass vaccination of livestock ( Roth et al ., 2003 ). Hence, brucellosis control is a landmark example of the benefits of a One Health approach to zoonoses control, when compared to focusing solely on public health. The most important causative agents are Brucella melitensis (sheep and goats), Brucella abortus (cattle), B. suis (pigs) and B. canis (dogs). Brucella are gram-negative coccobacillary bacteria with an intracellular predilection in the host. The main clinical feature in livestock is late-stage abortion (Figure 1 ), at which time bacteria are excreted in high numbers. Brucella may be shed during prolonged periods in milk after the cessation of clinical signs. Brucellosis causes mainly a loss of fertility and a reduction of milk production in sheep, goats and cattle. Symptoms of the disease in people are highly variable. In general, B. melitensis causes a more severe illness, with less severe forms caused by B. suis and B. abortus . The main symptoms are fever, sweats, malaise, anorexia, headache, arthralgia, myalgia, backache and weight loss ( Dean et al ., 2012b ). The bacteria can localize anywhere in the body. Two-thirds of the cases become chronic and the illness can continue for years if patients do not receive appropriate treatment ( Roth et al ., 2003 ). There is no or very rare human-to-human transmission of brucellosis. Acute human brucellosis without complications should be treated with a combination therapy of doxycycline-streptomycin or doxycycline-gentamicin. Focal forms often require prolonged treatment. Swiss TPH logo Information This case study is extracted from Chapter 14 of Zinsstag et al. 2015 (OH Book) and the Policy brief on the elimination of brucellosis in Central Asia. © The Authors 2023

Wild Mesocarnivores as Reservoirs of Endoparasites Causing Important Zoonoses and Emerging Bridging Infections across Europe.

Mesocarnivores are small- or mid-sized carnivore species that display a variety of ecologies and behaviours. In Europe, wild mesocarnivores are represented by the red fox (Vulpes vulpes), the golden jackal (Canis aureus), the European wildcat (Felis silvestris), the Mustelidae of the genera Meles, Martes, Mustela, Lutra, the invasive species of raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides), raccoons (Procyon lotor), and American mink (Neogale vison). These abundant animals thrive in various habitats and often develop their activity close to human settlements. Thus, they may play an important role in the introduction, maintenance, and transmission of major parasitic zoonoses and promote bridging infections with domestic animals. Against this background, this article reports and discusses some of the most important endoparasites of wild mesocarnivores living in Europe, on the basis of their actual role as reservoirs, spreaders, or sentinels. The data derived from epizootiological studies in different European countries, and the proven or speculated implications of the detected endoparasites in human and domestic animals' health, are discussed. Through older and recent literature review, the state-of-the-art knowledge on the occurrence and prevalence of the parasites under consideration is presented, showing further, warranted investigations and the need for surveillance and vigilance.

Research Note: Analysis of immune responses in broilers after vaccination against Campylobacter jejuni

Campylobacter infections traced mainly to poultry products are major bacterial foodborne zoonoses. Among the many control strategies evaluated at primary poultry level to reduce these infections, vaccination could be a solution, but no effective vaccines are available to date. A better understanding of the immune mechanisms involved in protection against Campylobacter would be helpful for designing novel vaccine strategies. The present study was designed to analyze in more depth the immune responses developed in broilers in order to potentially identify which immune parameters may be important for establishing protection against Campylobacter by comparing the immune responses obtained here with those obtained in a previous study performed on vaccinated specific-pathogen-free Leghorn chickens that presented a partial reduction of Campylobacter after experimental challenge. The protection against Campylobacter colonization was evaluated at different time points over 40 d of rearing, by measuring specific IgY levels in serum and IgA antibodies in bile reflecting the systemic and mucosal humoral responses respectively and the relative expressions of 9 cecal immune marker genes (cytokines and antimicrobial peptides), which reflect the innate and cellular immune responses. Despite no reduction of Campylobacter in the cecum, a systemic immune response over time characterized by the production of specific anti-flagellin IgY was observed, in addition to upregulation of the antimicrobial peptide avian β-defensin (AvBD) 12 gene expression in the cecum of vaccinated broilers compared with the placebo group. However, the levels of specific anti-flagellin mucosal IgA antibodies in the bile as well as the relative expression of other cecal cytokines studied was underexpressed in the vaccinated group or similar in both groups.

In silico study to predict promiscuous peptides for immunodiagnosis of cystic echinococcosis.

Cystic echinococcosis (CE), caused by Echinococcus granulosus, is a major zoonotic disease that causes significant human morbidity and mortality. This cosmopolitan disease is difficult to diagnose, treat, and control. So far, crude extracts of hydatid cyst fluid containing antigen B or antigen 5 have been used as the primary antigenic source for its immunodiagnosis. The main issue is that it reacts with sera from people infected with other helminths. There is currently no standard, specific, or sensitive test for disease diagnosis, and no human vaccine has been reported. Considering the need for efficient immunization and/or immunodiagnosis, six E. granulosus antigens, antigen 5, antigen B, heat shock proteins such as Hsp-8 and Hsp-90, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, and tetraspanin-1, were chosen. Using various in silico tools, T cell and B cell epitopes (promiscuous peptides) were predicted by targeting antigen 5, antigen B, heat shock proteins such as Hsp-8 and Hsp-90, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, and tetraspanin-1. There are twelve promiscuous peptides with overlapping human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class-I, class-II, and conformational B cell epitopes. Such immunodominant peptides could be useful as subunit vaccines. Furthermore, six peptides specific for E. granulosus were also discovered, which may prove to be important markers in the diagnosis of CE, potentially preventing misdiagnosis and mismanagement. These epitopes may be the most important vaccine targets in E. granulosus because they have the most promiscuous peptides and B cell epitopes, as well as the highest affinity for different alleles, as determined by docking scores. However, additional research using in vitro and in vivo models is undertaken.

Zoonotic Disease Risks of Live Export of Cattle and Sheep, with a Focus on Australian Shipments to Asia and the Middle East.

The growing human and livestock populations in the world today and increased international transport of livestock is increasing the risk of both emerging and endemic zoonotic diseases. This review focuses on the potential for the live export trade to transmit zoonotic diseases. Both cattle and sheep are exposed to major stresses during the transport process, which are described, together with the impact of these stresses on the immune function of transported animals. Heat stress, overcrowding, inanition, ship and vehicle motion and accumulation of noxious gases are analysed for their ability to potentiate infectious diseases. The major zoonoses are described: pustular dermatitis, pneumonia, salmonellosis, as well as some common conditions, such as conjunctivitis, with specific reference to stressors associated with each disorder. Historical precedents exist for restriction of the trade based on disease risks. Finally, the economic and regulatory frameworks are considered to evaluate ways in which the spread of zoonotic diseases can be controlled.

The prevalence of Q fever in the Eastern Mediterranean region: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Q fever, caused by the bacterium, is a major zoonotic disease around the world. This disease is common in the Eastern Mediterranean region; therefore, we conducted the first systematic review and meta-analysis on its prevalence in humans, animals, and ticks in the Eastern Mediterranean region. Major Iranian and international databases were searched from 2000 to 2021. We extracted the prevalence of Q fever in blood samples from animals and milk samples from animals, ticks, and humans as the main outcome. We reported the prevalence of seropositivity and molecular positivity as point estimates and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). In this review, 112 papers were identified. The overall seroprevalence of Q fever was 22.4% (95% CI, 19.8 to 25.1). The pooled prevalence of Q fever in ticks was 17.5% (95% CI, -1.3 to 36.4). The prevalence was 25.5% (95% CI, 16.1 to 34.9) in humans. The prevalence of Q fever in animal blood samples from goats, sheep, camels, cattle, cats, dogs, horses, and buffalo were 28.1%, 25.1%, 25.0%, 20.1%, 9.8%, 8.4%, 6.5%, and 6.3%, respectively. Furthermore, the prevalence of Q fever in milk samples of animals was higher in cattle (20.3%) than in sheep (20.0%), goats (16.4%), and camels (3.3%). Coxiella burnetii infections are common in humans and in a wide range of animal species, but they are still not recognized in many countries in the Eastern Mediterranean region, thus presenting a significant threat to human and animal health in the region.

What do future public health doctors know about the One Health concept in Portugal?

Abstract Background The One Health (OH) approach brings together a transdisciplinary collaboration between human, animal, and environmental health, to tackle emerging zoonotic diseases, antimicrobial resistance, and food safety. Therefore, incorporating of OH principles in the education of health care providers is fundamental. Methods To assess OH knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP), an anonymous, multiple-choice, online self-administered survey was sent to 1st year Portuguese Public Health Medical Residents (PPHMR), during an online congress targeted to them. A descriptive analysis was performed. Results A 50.0% response rate was obtained out of the 42 PPHMR attendees. Only 33.3% were familiar with OH concept; 57,1% had heard of it but were not aware of its meaning, and 9.5% had never heard of it. Concerningly, 9,5% believed zoonosis were diseases transmitted between animals and 42.9% considered that “antimicrobial resistance” is applied to antibiotics only. Regarding major zoonosis, etiologic agents were not recognized for Cryptosporidiosis (47.6%), Echinococcosis (42.9%), Toxoplasmosis and Leptospirosis (38.1%), Dermatophytosis (33.3%), Rabies (28.6%), Borreliosis/Brucellosis (23.8%). Half (52.4%) were unaware of the transmission route of Brucellosis/Dermatophytosis, followed by Leptospirosis (38.1%), Toxoplasmosis (28.6%) and Borreliosis/Rabies (23.8%). Remarkably, all participants showed willingness to be informed on OH issues and agreed that prevention and speed of intervention would be higher with greater collaboration between health technicians. About education towards OH throughout their medical curricula, 61.9% classified it as low, 23.8% as absent, 14.3% as sufficient and none classified it as adequate or very adequate. Conclusions This is the first study assessing KAP regarding the OH concept among PPHMR. Results highlight the need to bring OH to the Portuguese medical schools’ agenda to better prepare the next generation of PPHMR to the emerging health crisis. Key messages • Despite the interest shown by 1st year Portuguese Public Health Medical Residents concerning One Health, a general lack of knowledge on the topic was found. • The majority qualified as insufficient their training on this subject, highlighting the need for medical schools to improve education and raise awareness regarding this transdisciplinary approach.

Anti-echinococcal effects of sumac, Rhus coriaria, in a murine model of cystic echinococcosis: Parasitological and molecular evaluation

Sumac has been traditionally used by people as a medicinal plant for the treatment of different disorders. Cystic echinococcosis (CE) is one of the major zoonotic diseases of human with a worldwide distribution. Long term albendazole therapy is usually associated with side effects including impaired liver function and leukopenia.The present study investigated the efficacy of the methanolic extract of Sumac, Rhus coriaria, on the secondary hydatid cyst development in mice and evaluated sumac effects on the expression of a profile of genes with a potential role in parasite development.Thirty-six mice were intraperitoneally inoculated with of with 3000 protoscoleces and six months after induction of infection were divided into three groups that received either oral sumac extract, albendazole or distilled water. The mice were necropsied 45 days later and the volume and weight of cysts were measured. The expression level of five target genes were analyzed using RT-qPCR.The volume and weight of the cysts were significantly lower in the sumac group compared to the controls. Decreased expressions were found in four out of the five genes following sumac administration. While significantly lower expressions in the sumac group were found for the cdk6, b-raf, fgfr and ras genes, no significant difference was found in cdk2 expression as compared with the control groups.Findings of the present study indicate high efficacy of sumac on the size and volume of secondary hydatid cysts in a murine CE model. Further studies are required to explore the most active and effective ingredients of this natural product.

Prevalence and Retrospective Insight on Tuberculosis in Human Patients in Cross River State, Nigeria; One Health Approach to its Control.

Tuberculosis (TB) is a major zoonotic disease of public health importance worldwide. Its burden is more in developing countries due to inadequate surveillance, co-infection with HIV/AIDS and poor social amenities; hence consumption of unpasteurized milk, contaminated meat and inhalation of infected droplets from animals or patients with active TB are the major risk practices. A survey was conducted on TB prevalence from 2013 to 2014 while patients records from TB and Leprosy units of hospitals in the three Agricultural zones (Ogoja, Ikom and Calabar) of Cross River State, Nigeria were assessed from 2000 to 2010. Out of 1,170 sampled patients, 8 (0.7%) were positive, of which 6 and 2 isolates were identified as M. tuberculosis and M. bovis, respectively. Out of 52,558 studied patients files, 235 (0.4%) were positive with varied annual prevalence; the highest (1.0%) and lowest (0.2%) in 2009 and 2011, respectively. The prevalence was higher in dry (0.9% and 0.5%) than the rainy season (0.5% and 0.4%), in females (0.9% and 0.5%) than the males (0.4% and 0.4%) in the survey and retrospective studies, respectively. The age distribution of TB among the patients were; (0% and 0.3%), (0.4% and 0.4%), (0.7% and 0.4%) and (1.5% and 0.7%) for those (≤ 18), (19-40), (41-60) and (> 60) yrs old in the survey and retrospective study, respectively. TB is prevalent in human patients in Cross River State hence, the need for sustainable campaign, continuous surveillance and private/ public health partnership in accurate and early diagnosis, treatment and one health approach to its control.

Comparative Efficacy of Serological Tests and Molecular Analysis of Bovine Brucellosis in Western Uttar Pradesh

Background: Brucellosis is a major zoonotic disease that affects people all over the world. Metritis, mastitis, repeat breeding, abortion in the last trimester of pregnancy, retention of placenta and reduced milk production are all symptoms of Brucellosis in the female bovines, whereas epididymitis, orchitis and sterility are symptoms in the male animals. In humans flu-like to undulant fever, arthritis, orchitis and epididymitis can be detected. Methods: A total of 470 bovine samples (serum, whole blood, milk samples) were taken from four districts of western Uttar Pradesh. The 262 sera samples were processed and subjected to RBPT, STAT and ELISA for the determination of seroprevalence of brucellosis and 108 whole blood samples were subjected to molecular analysis by PCR for the disease. Result: Out of 262 (203 cattle and 59 buffalo) serum samples, the seroprevalence of brucellosis in 203 cattle serum sample was found to be 11.82%, 16.25% and 8.37%. Whereas, in 59 buffalo serum samples, the seroprevalence was 3.38%, 15.25% and 0.00% by RBPT, STAT and I-ELISA respectively. Out of 108 whole blood samples, 5 were positive in molecular detection by PCR giving a prevalence rate of 1.62%.

Epidemiology of Leptospirosis: The First Literature Review of the Neglected Disease in the Middle East.

Leptospirosis is a major zoonotic disease that has emerged worldwide, and numerous studies performed in affected countries have provided epidemiological knowledge of the disease. However, currently, there is inadequate knowledge of leptospirosis in the Middle East. Therefore, we grouped publications from various Middle Eastern countries to acquire a general knowledge of the epidemiological situation of leptospirosis and provide an initial description of the leptospiral relative risk and circulating serogroups. We conducted a detailed literature search of existing studies describing Leptospira prevalence and seroprevalence in Middle Eastern countries. The search was performed using online PubMed and ScienceDirect databases. One hundred and one articles were included in this review. Some countries, including Iran, Turkey, and Egypt, reported more publications compared to others, such as Lebanon, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia. Frequently, the seroprevalence of leptospirosis varied considerably between and within countries. The prevalence of leptospirosis was comparable in most Middle Eastern countries; however, it varied between some countries. The methods of detection also varied among studies, with the microscopic agglutination test used most commonly. Some hosts were more recurrent compared with others. This review summarizes the epidemiological situation of Leptospira infection in the Middle East, reporting predominant serogroups—Sejroe, Grippotyphosa, Icterohaemorrhagiae, Autumnalis, and Pomona—that were identified in the most commonly tested hosts. Our findings emphasize the need to develop a deeper understanding of the epidemiology of Leptospira spp. and prioritize the disease as a public health problem in this region. To achieve this goal, increased awareness is critical, and more publications related to the topic and following a standardized approach are needed.

Development of efficient, sensitive, and specific detection method for Encephalomyocarditis virus based on CRISPR/Cas13a

The Encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) is one of the major zoonosis pathogens, and it can cause acute myocarditis in young pigs or reproductive failure in sows. EMCV has been recognized as a pathogen infecting many species and causes substantial economic losses worldwide. Therefore, the development of a rapid, sensitive, and accurate detection of this virus is essential for the diagnosis and control of the EMCV-induced disease. The RNA-guiding, RNA-targeting CRISPR effector CRISPR/Cas13a (Cas13a, previously known as C2c2) exhibits a “collateral effect” of promiscuous RNase activity upon the target recognition. When the crRNA of LwCas13a binds to the target RNA, the collateral cleavage activity of LwCas13a is activated to degrade the non-targeted RNA. In this study, we developed an efficient, sensitive, and specific EMCV detection method based on the collateral cleavage activity of LwCas13a by combining recombinase-aided amplification (RAA) and a lateral flow strip. This method was an isothermal detection at 37 °C, which allowed visual observation by the naked eyes. We also optimized the reaction conditions of this method, and the detection result could be obtained within 60 min. The sensitivity of our method reached up to 101 copies/µL. Furthermore, no cross-reactions with other 8 major swine viruses were observed, indicating the excellent specificity of this method. At the same time, the assay had a 100 % coincidence rate with qPCR detection of the EMCV in 37 clinical samples. In addition, our developed method requires only 2-step operations and basic equipment, and thus it is simple and inexpensive. Overall, CRISPR/Cas13a-based detection has a great application potential for the EMCV detection.

Survival of Campylobacter jejuni Co-Cultured with Salmonella spp. in Aerobic Conditions.

Campylobacter and Salmonella are responsible for the two major foodborne zoonotic diseases in Europe; poultry is the main infection source. Campylobacter cannot grow under aerobic conditions, but can show aerobic survival when co-cultured with other microorganisms; however, its interaction with Salmonella has not been studied yet. In this study, these two bacteria were co-cultured under controlled aerobic conditions. Different concentrations and strains of C. jejuni were incubated with or without different Salmonella serotypes (10 CFU) at 37 °C for 16 h. C. jejuni did not grow after incubation with or without Salmonella. The survival of C. jejuni was observed only for the highest initial concentration of 6 log CFU/mL with or without Salmonella. However, its survival was significantly higher when co-cultured with Salmonella. No survival was observed at lower concentrations. C. jejuni survival was positively affected by the presence of Salmonella but depended on the Salmonella serotype, the C. jejuni strain and the initial concentration. On the other hand, the Salmonella enumerations were not affected by C. jejuni. Our results suggest potential interactions between Salmonella and C. jejuni that require further investigations for a clearer understanding of their behavior in natural habitats.

Immunosuppressive Mechanisms in Brucellosis in Light of Chronic Bacterial Diseases.

Brucellosis is considered one of the major zoonoses worldwide, constituting a critical livestock and human health concern with a huge socio-economic burden. Brucella genus, its etiologic agent, is composed of intracellular bacteria that have evolved a prodigious ability to elude and shape host immunity to establish chronic infection. Brucella’s intracellular lifestyle and pathogen-associated molecular patterns, such as its specific lipopolysaccharide (LPS), are key factors for hiding and hampering recognition by the immune system. Here, we will review the current knowledge of evading and immunosuppressive mechanisms elicited by Brucella species to persist stealthily in their hosts, such as those triggered by their LPS and cyclic β-1,2-d-glucan or involved in neutrophil and monocyte avoidance, antigen presentation impairment, the modulation of T cell responses and immunometabolism. Attractive strategies exploited by other successful chronic pathogenic bacteria, including Mycobacteria, Salmonella, and Chlamydia, will be also discussed, with a special emphasis on the mechanisms operating in brucellosis, such as granuloma formation, pyroptosis, and manipulation of type I and III IFNs, B cells, innate lymphoid cells, and host lipids. A better understanding of these stratagems is essential to fighting bacterial chronic infections and designing innovative treatments and vaccines.

Success in animal skin fashion in African countries or the boom of the wet market.

The world and the way things are done have changed, from selling clothing in brick-and-mortar stores to online shopping through social media platforms. Population growth has significantly contributed to an increased clothing demand, which, in turn, has increased the demand for animal skin. Traditional markets, also known as wet markets, are considered as major zoonotic disease reservoirs due to human and animal contact. Some groups and individuals continue to believe in traditional medicine and clothing that is made from animal skin, and such beliefs are more accessible with the presence of wet markets. Hence, animal poaching and trafficking have increased to meet the high demands, primarily in the Western world. Poverty is a well-known motivation to commit a crime. Conservationists should not only look at the animal regulation site to propose a solution to animal poaching and trafficking but should also consider communal poverty. Thus, this review aimed to highlight the role of wet market and animal skin fashion on animal welfare and human health.

Facing the Human and Animal Brucellosis Conundrums: The Forgotten Lessons.

Brucellosis is a major zoonotic disease caused by Brucella species. Historically, the disease received over fifty names until it was recognized as a single entity, illustrating its protean manifestations and intricacies, traits that generated conundrums that have remained or re-emerged since they were first described. Here, we examine confusions concerning the clinical picture, serological diagnosis, and incidence of human brucellosis. We also discuss knowledge gaps and prevalent confusions about animal brucellosis, including brucellosis control strategies, the so-called confirmatory tests, and assumptions about the primary-binding assays and DNA detection methods. We describe how doubtfully characterized vaccines have failed to control brucellosis and emphasize how the requisites of controlled safety and protection experiments are generally overlooked. Finally, we briefly discuss the experience demonstrating that S19 remains the best cattle vaccine, while RB51 fails to validate its claimed properties (protection, differentiating infected and vaccinated animals (DIVA), and safety), offering a strong argument against its current widespread use. These conundrums show that knowledge dealing with brucellosis is lost, and previous experience is overlooked or misinterpreted, as illustrated in a significant number of misguided meta-analyses. In a global context of intensifying livestock breeding, such recurrent oversights threaten to increase the impact of brucellosis.