Major Waste Research Articles

3D nanostructure of CO2‐mineralized steel slag

AbstractSteel slag, a major industrial waste in China, possesses significant CO2 absorption potential. In this study, the CO2 sequestration of steel slag reached up to 15.6%; however, excessive mineralization resulted in reduced hydration activity. Compared to unmineralized slag, the 1‐day compressive strength decreased by 15.9%, and cumulative hydration heat over 72 h dropped by 8%. Using advanced visualization techniques such as scanning electron microscopy‐backscattered electron (SEM‐BSE), 3D X‐ray, and focused ion beam‐transmission electron microscopy (FIB‐TEM), the study reveals the microstructure of overmineralized steel slag, identifying a composition of a calcite outer layer, an amorphous SiO2 layer, a transition area, and an unmineralized core. The mineralization reaction affected 84.80% of the steel slag particles, with volume expansion causing dense regions to become porous, increasing porosity from 0% to 1.62%. This expansion also risks lattice distortion. During CO2 mineralization, a dense calcite layer forms, blocking the hydration of internal silicate gels and calcium silicate minerals, reducing the hydration activity of overmineralized slag. This study offers insights for optimizing CO2 mineralization techniques and applications for steel slag.

Distribution Patterns and Ecological Risks of Microplastics at Major Waste Disposal Environments in Dhaka, Bangladesh

Distribution Patterns and Ecological Risks of Microplastics at Major Waste Disposal Environments in Dhaka, Bangladesh

Effect of k-casein-chlorella-carvacrol coating for enhancing shelf life of sapodilla fruit

BackgroundAbout 40–45 % of harvested fruits and vegetables are exorcized due to spoilage, which is a major waste of food resources. Extending the shelf life of fruits/vegetables we ensure that the efforts of farmers are effectively utilized. Sustaining freshness, minimal food loss and availability of seasonal fruits are the added advantages for longer shelf life. MethodsIn this perspective, this research work was executed to explore the effect of k-casein-chlorella-carvacrol (kCC) aggregate as an edible coating on sapodilla to improve the shelf-life period. Fruits without coating were taken as control, and for coated fruits, the efficacy of the aggregate was evaluated by physicochemical and antimicrobial analysis. Compared to the control, the coated fruits showed a statistically noteworthy improvement (P < 0.05) in properties, including total soluble solids (TSS), antioxidant activity (AA), titratable acidity (TA), total phenolic content (TPC), weight loss (WL), and pH. The WL was reduced by 20 % over a 15-day storage period, compared to only 5 days for the control. TA and TSS results proved that the kCC coating can reduce the acidity. An AA and TPC result evince the delayed ripening of sapodilla up to 12 days. Significant findingsThe kCC edible coating can enhance the quality and extend the shelf life of sapodilla. Furthermore, it may be an effective edible coating for other perishable fruits and vegetables. The coating also demonstrated significant efficacy against Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus.

Clustering Analysis of Food Security, Waste and Loss: Malaysia Agricultural Insights

As the world population grows rapidly nowadays, the demand for food has come to rise. The escalating demand for food has caused substantial wastage and loss, which not only hampers food security efforts but also aggravates greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, intensifying the environmental crisis. Among numerous countries, Malaysia, with its diverse agricultural profile, emerges as a good fit for our case study. This study chooses the clustering technique to examine food sector data in Malaysia and investigate the link between the clustering results on food data and the data on GHG emissions. This case study aims to find crops depending on their production efficiency, underline those that match major waste, and estimate their contribution to greenhouse gas emissions. Three clustering techniques, Gaussian Mixture Modelling (GMM), Birch, and Density Peak clustering, are applied in the Production and Supply Utilisation Accounts (SUA) datasets, help to identify and cluster crops based on their similar traits to acquire uncovered patterns between the food sector and environmental issues. Using cutting-edge clustering algorithms and visualization tools, this study investigated in-depth the complex interactions among food production, waste, and greenhouse gas emissions in Malaysia. By addressing food production efficiency and waste reduction, the outcome will be a cascade of benefits that not only improve food security but also help to lessen negative environmental effects. This study illuminates the multifaceted dynamics of food production, waste, and environmental impact, offering valuable insights and pathways toward a more sustainable future for Malaysia and potentially other nations.

Synergetic pyrolysis of lithium-ion battery cathodes with polyethylene terephthalate for efficient metal recovery and battery regeneration

Spent LiNixCoyMnzO2 (x + y + z = 1) and polyethylene terephthalate are major solid wastes due to the growing Li-ion battery market and widespread plastic usage. Here we propose a synergistic pyrolysis strategy to recover valuable metals by thermally treating LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 and polyethylene terephthalate. With polyethylene terephthalate assistance, LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 decomposes at 400 °C, and fully converts to Li2CO3, MnO, and Ni-Co alloy at 550 °C within 30 min, using a 1.0:0.3 mass ratio of LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 to polyethylene terephthalate. Furthermore, density functional theory calculations confirm the preference for O-Li bonding. Surface adsorption and free radical/gaseous reduction reactions explain the role of polyethylene terephthalate in promoting lattice destruction. The complete decomposition facilitates efficient post-treatment, achieving over 99% recovery of Li, Ni, Co, and Mn via water washing. Regenerated LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 was synthesized by using recovered Li- and transition metal-containing products as feedstocks. This study provided a chemical-free, energy-saving, and scalable recovery strategy while addressing polyethylene terephthalate waste minimization.

Electrifying Industrial Hydrogen Peroxide Production

Current hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) production is dominantly made through thermocatalytic anthraquinone autoxidation (t-AO) method at industrial scale. Incumbent anthraquinone hydrogenation involves pressurized hydrogen input and requires palladium-based catalysts that can over-reduce anthraquinone to non-reactive molecules. A considerable amount of energy is associated with the distillation and transportation of H2O2, which could be avoided with decentralized electrochemical H2O2 production methods. We developed an interfacial hydrogen atom transfer reaction between an aqueous and a nonaqueous phase to realize an electrochemical AO process (e-AO), avoiding undesired over-reduction side-reactions. The ambient aqueous electrochemical process enables us to produce H2O2 with a Faradaic efficiency about 80% under high current densities (> 200 mA cm−2). The system can be free of hydrogen gas and noble metal. The H2O2 produced this way can be at high concentration (> 10%) and free of electrolyte. This method can facilitate the electrification and decentralization of H2O2 production and reduce the major waste associated with the decomposition of anthraquinone molecules. The electrochemically obtained non-aqueous peroxide can also be directly used in organic synthesis of other high-value chemicals. Figure 1

Priorities of Critical Success Factors for Lean Production Implementation of China’s Factories

As demonstrated by the existing literature, lean production and management can contribute to the improvement of firm performance. However, there are many companies that struggle to apply its ethos and practices. The key point is that lean production differs from traditional mass production in many ways. Other than that, numerous studies have shown that business management systems must take into account both soft power and hard power. The main purpose of this study is to use the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and Analytic Network Process (ANP) tools to find out the soft and hard power factors, rank their importance in identifying the key success factors for the introduction of a lean production system, and assist in making the company’s transformation smoother and more successful. The research results verify that a lean production system needs to take into account both soft power and hard power. Lean management in this study concludes the following priorities of critical factors: In hard power (technical dimension): (1) 5S, (2) seven major wastes, (3) solutions to lean production-related issues, (4) storage location management and warehouse management, (5) single minute exchange of die, and (6) total productive maintenance; In soft power (management dimension): (1) teamwork, (2) communication, (3) leadership, (4) culture, (5) initiative, and (6) employee training. The combination of soft power and hard power can improve the success rate of lean management system introduction.

Mechanism and optimization of sintered ultra-lightweight aggregates with sand washing slurry and red mud

Sand washing slurry, red mud, and waste sawdust are major solid wastes produced by the construction, mining, and wood processing industries, respectively. Their accumulation poses significant environmental hazards and results in substantial wastage of resources. This study utilized a novel rapid roasting method to prepare ultra-lightweight ceramsite aggregates (ULC) using sand washing slurry, red mud, and sawdust as raw materials. A new process for preparing ultra-lightweight clay aggregates (ULCA) utilizing waste sand washing sludge is proposed, achieving a utilization rate of the wash sand sludge exceeding 60%. Ultra-lightweight clay aggregates with a loose bulk density of 264.3 kg/m3 were produced. The influence of material formulation on the performance of ultra-lightweight clay aggregates was studied. The phase changes and expansion mechanism of the clay aggregates were revealed from microscopic and chemical perspectives. The synergistic effect of red mud and sawdust significantly enhanced the foaming effect of the ceramsite (i.e., porosity), reducing its loose bulk density while slowing the rate of strength reduction. Additionally, increasing the content of red mud and sawdust promoted ceramsite expansion. When the mass ratio of sand washing slurry, red mud, and sawdust was 29: 12: 1, with Fe2O3 content at 13% and sawdust content at 3%, preheating at 500°C for 5 minutes followed by roasting at 1150°C for 5 minutes produced ultra-lightweight ceramsite with a compressive strength of 1.7 MPa. This study provides a promising method for producing ULC from industrial solid wastes.

Synergistic effects of nano titanium dioxide and waste glass powder on the mechanical and durability properties of concrete

This study investigates the combined use of waste glass powder and nano titanium dioxide (TiO2) on the mechanical and durability properties of the concrete. Waste glass being one of the major municipal wastes going into the landfill sites can be used as a pozzolanic material in the concrete, in this study cement is replaced with waste glass powder by 10% along with nano TiO2, it is used as an addition to cementitious material by 0.5%, 1% and 1.5%. Fresh and mechanical properties like setting time, workability, compressive strength and flexural strength is evaluated along with durability properties such as sorptivity, acid, sulphate and chloride attacks, elevated temperature test. Scanning electron microscope is done to understand the morphology of the blended concrete. Combined use of glass powder and nano TiO2 is found beneficial in mechanical and durability parameters whereas addition of nano TiO2 has resulted in decreased workability of the concrete.

Quality Properties of Bakery Products and Pasta Containing Spent Coffee Grounds (SCGs): A Review.

Coffee is one of the most consumed and popular beverages worldwide, and it produces a significant quantity of waste. Spent coffee grounds (SCGs) are one of the major waste products that can be used as an ingredient for creating novel foods. Therefore, the effect of incorporating varying percentages of spent coffee grounds (SCGs) on the quality properties of bakery products and pasta is reviewed. Chemically, SCGs alter protein, fat, fiber, ash, and bioactive compound levels in bakery and pasta products, improving nutritional value and promoting health benefits. The impact of SCGs on the physical characteristics of baked goods depends on factors like SCG concentration and processing methods, which influence product texture and structure. Sensory properties are vital for consumer acceptance. SCGs can add unique flavors and colors to baked goods, but more attention is needed to optimize the SCGs' incorporation concentration for a better consumer appeal. In conclusion, integrating SCGs into bakery products and pasta offers nutritional enhancement, sustainability, and sensory improvement opportunities. Optimizing product quality allows manufacturers to leverage SCGs' potential in the food industry.

Beneath the surface: assessing pollution levels near major solid waste dumpsites in Lagos, Nigeria.

Effective solid waste management is a critical environmental challenge, particularly in rapidly growing Global South countries like Nigeria. This issue is exacerbated by burgeoning populations, lax waste regulations, and the widespread practice of open dumping. The deterioration of soil quality and alteration of water quality are major consequences of open waste dumping, posing significant environmental and public health risks. This study aims to assess the environmental risk and pollution status of soil and water resources near major dumpsites in Lagos. It aims to offer insights that can inform targeted interventions and policy measures not only in Lagos but also in comparable urban settings worldwide. Results indicated that important soil parameters, including TN (11.89-13.83mg/kg), pH (6.45-7.35), sulfate (36.71-39.49mg/kg), phosphate (9.31-14.39mg/kg), and electrical conductivity (342-566 µS/cm), were significantly affected by the dumpsites. Additionally, concentrations of heavy metals varied, with some exceeding permissible limits set by international standards, highlighting the environmental challenges posed by improper waste disposal in urban settings like Lagos. The analyzed parameters for water were mostly within acceptable limits, indicating a lesser impact of the waste dump on water resources. Water samples from boreholes and hand-dug wells near three dumpsites showed that pH, TDS, and heavy metal concentrations were mostly within WHO limits, with borehole water deemed safe for drinking and hand-dug wells suitable for cleaning. To alleviate the environmental impacts of open dumpsites, it is recommended to implement effective waste segregation, recycling programs, controlled landfilling, and investment in waste treatment technologies, along with regular water quality monitoring to prevent further pollution and protect public health. While these measures offer opportunities, they also face significant challenges due to financial and land constraints. Therefore, strong public awareness, infrastructure investment, and government commitment are essential, along with coordinated efforts among the government, private sector, and communities.

Quantification and ecotoxicological contribution of volatile compounds in produced water effluents

Produced water (PW) is a significant byproduct of offshore oil and gas production, constituting a major waste stream in the North Sea. Existing regulations address only the dispersed aliphatic hydrocarbon content in PW, and limited attention is given to other potentially hazardous compounds, including benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene and xylene (BTEX), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), phenols, water-soluble petroleum constituents as well as production-related chemicals. In this study, Danish oil production PW samples were subjected to purge and trap extraction on granular activated carbon for volatile compounds identification and quantification by GC-MS analysis. The obtained analytical data correlate with toxicity assessments conducted on three trophic levels, bacteria (Aliivibrio fischeri), algae (Skeletonema costatum) and copepods (Acartia tonsa) on the whole effluent as well as on treated samples. The removal of the PW volatile fraction by purging experiments resulted in a decrease in toxicity response from 37% ± 23–65% ± 16 across the tested species. The chemicals identified in this study and their toxicity response enhance the comprehension of the PW effluent composition and inform the development of strategies for offshore reservoir wastewater.

Cocoa pod husk-derived organic soil amendments differentially affect soil fertility, nutrient leaching, and greenhouse gas emissions in cocoa soils

The depletion of soil nutrients and decline in yields on cocoa farms in west Africa over time force farmers to abandon their farms and look for new fertile land, thereby contributing to deforestation. Cocoa pod husks (CPH) are a major farm waste representing considerable export of nutrients from cocoa soils, particularly P and K. Here, the impacts of soil amendment with raw CPH residues, CPH compost, CPH biochar, or a CPH compost-biochar mixture on soil fertility, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and nutrient losses via leaching were assessed in two laboratory experiments using two major soil types used for cocoa cultivation in Ghana (an acidic Ferralsol and an alkaline Nitisol). In Experiment 1, soil nutrient availability and CO2 and N2O emissions were quantified, whereas simulation and quantification of nutrient leaching were conducted in Experiment 2. Soil pH increased from 4.8 to 8.6 by 1.4- and 1.1-folds on average in amended Ferralsols and Nitisols, respectively. Soil electrical conductivity increased in soils amended with CPH compost and/or biochar. Addition of raw CPH caused remarkable microbial immobilisation of N and reduced N availability and leaching, whereas CPH compost and/or biochar addition increased soil nitrate availability but reduced soil ammonium availability. Leaching of Ca in Nitisols was reduced when CPH biochar was included in the soil amendment. While soil K availability increased in all amended soils, most notably when CPH biochar was included, soil P and Ca availabilities were greatest where CPH compost was included. Soil total GHG emission (CO2 plus N2O) increased in all amended Ferralsols and the Nitisols amended with CPH compost or raw CPH, with the latter remarkably increasing soil CO2 emission by up to 14.8-folds. Compared to sole CPH compost amendment, CPH compost-biochar mixture amendment reduced soil total GHG emission and N and P leaching. These findings show that composted and/or pyrolysed CPH can be judiciously used to enhance soil fertility in cocoa farms, particularly in acidic soils. Pyrolysed CPH is especially beneficial for reducing soil nutrient leaching and GHG emissions and thus for increasing the sustainability of cocoa production in Ghana and west Africa.

Biochar-Supported Phytoremediation of Dredged Sediments Contaminated by HCH Isomers and Trace Elements Using Paulownia tomentosa

The remediation of dredged sediments (DS) as a major waste generation field has become an urgent environmental issue. In response to the limited strategies to restore DS, the current study aimed to investigate the suitability of Paulownia tomentosa (Thunb.) Steud as a tool for decontamination of DS, both independently and in combination with a sewage sludge-based biochar. The experimental design included unamended and biochar-supplemented DS with the application rates of 2.5, 5.0, and 10.0%, in which vegetation of P. tomentosa was monitored. The results confirmed that the incorporation of biochar enriched DS with the essential plant nutrients (P, Ca, and S), stimulated biomass yield and improved the plant’s photosynthetic performance by up to 3.36 and 80.0 times, respectively; the observed effects were correlated with the application rates. In addition, biochar enhanced the phytostabilisation of organic contaminants and shifted the primary accumulation of potentially toxic elements from the aboveground biomass to the roots. In spite of the inspiring results, further research has to concentrate on the investigation of the mechanisms of improvement the plant’s development depending on biochar’s properties and application rate and studying the biochar’s mitigation effects in the explored DS research system.

Revolutionizing waste: Harnessing agro-food hydrochar for potent adsorption of organic and inorganic contaminants in water.

Constant pollution from a wide range of human activities has a negative impact on the quantity and quality of the planet's water resources. On the other hand, agro-food waste can impact climate change and other forms of life, in addition to having social, economic, and environmental consequences. However, as a result of their inherent physicochemical properties and lignocellulosic composition, these residues are becoming increasingly recognized as valuable products in line with government policies advocating zero waste and circular economies. An advantageous way to convert these wastes into energy and chemicals is hydrothermal carbonization (HTC). This review highlights the valorization of agro-food waste into hydrochar-based adsorbents for the elimination of organic and inorganic contaminants from aqueous environments. An overview of the toxicity of pollutants in aqueous environments, food waste management, as well as HTC technology was initially proposed. Then, a discussion on the conversion of major agro-food wastes into contaminant adsorbents was given in detail. Adsorption mechanisms as well as the possibility of reuse of adsorbents were also discussed. Enhanced properties of the produced materials enable them to provide competent solutions to various ecological contexts, including removing pollutants from wastewater with cost-effectiveness and satisfactory results. Besides addressing environmental concerns, this sustainable approach opens the door for more environmentally-friendly and resource-efficient applications in the future, making it an exciting prospect.

Methodological Review of Methods and Technology for Utilization of Spent Carbon Cathode in Aluminum Electrolysis

Spent carbon cathode (SCC) is one of the major hazardous solid wastes generated during the overhaul of electrolysis cells in the aluminum production process. SCC is not only rich in carbon resources but also contains soluble fluoride and cyanide, which gives it both recycling value and significant leaching toxicity. In this study, we explore the properties, emissions, and disposal strategies for SCC. Pyrometallurgy involves processes such as vacuum distillation, molten salt roasting, and high-temperature roasting. Hydrometallurgy describes various methods used to separate valuable components from leachate and prepare products. Collaborative disposal plays a positive role in treating SCC alongside other solid wastes. High-value utilization provides an approach to make full use of high-purity carbon-based materials. Finally, we analyze and summarize future prospects for the disposal of SCC. This study aims to contribute to the large-scale treatment and resource utilization of SCC while promoting circular economy principles and green development initiatives.

Determinants of Carbon Inventory and Systematic Innovation Methods to Analyze the Strategies of Carbon Reduction: An Empirical Study of Green Lean Management in Electroplating an Factory

This study explored the relationship between lean management, carbon inventory, and carbon reduction, along with the main factors affecting factory carbon inventory and carbon reduction, and proposed a set of carbon emission reduction strategies based on green value stream mapping. An electroplating factory and its production line in Taiwan was selected. Fourteen carbon inventory records, three work circle meetings, and green value flowcharts were utilized to collect and analyze data. Furthermore, this study applied the DMAIC framework and TRIZ to solve the issue of carbon emissions. The key factor affecting factory carbon inventory and carbon reduction was found to be electricity waste, which could be reduced through energy-saving methods. After analyzing the green value stream mapping, effective carbon emission reduction can be implemented in the manufacturing process. The company was found to gradually progress towards carbon reduction after investigating seven major green wastes. This study confirms that lean management can help organizations achieve their carbon emission reduction goals and is valuable in improving the organization’s environmental performance and competitiveness.

Green hybrid materials from biomass waste: Distiller’s grains/epoxy vitrimer—Green synthesis, superior properties, and potential application in solar-thermal-electric generator

Distiller’s grains (DG) are a major biomass waste product in the ethanol and brewing industries, and have shown great potential as fillers for polymer composites. However, combining DG with polymer matrixes using traditional method often involves tedious pre-modification of DG and/or the use of costly coupling agents, significantly increasing the preparation cost of the final composite materials. In this study, we present an environmentally friendly approach for preparing a new type of green composite, termed distiller’s grains/epoxy vitrimer hybrid materials (EV@DG). This method eliminates the need for laborious pre-modifications of DG, as well as the use of solvents and coupling agents. The resulting EV@DG hybrid materials exhibit superior mechanical properties—approximately 90 % increase in tensile strength and 400 % increase in Young’s modulus—along with high thermal stability (Td,max of 357.63°C) and excellent reprocessability. Moreover, the EV@DGs demonstrate impressive photothermal conversion capabilities, positioning them as promising candidates for the fabrication of solar-thermal-electric generator.

Affordable and sustainable clean energy generation potentials from municipal dumpsites: case study of Oke saje dumpsite, Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria

The operating method of final waste disposal in Oke saje area of Abeokuta is direct open dumping and burning. This study was conducted at a major dumpsite in Abeokuta, to investigate the existing waste management systems, characterize solid wastes generated, and estimate for the sustainable energy generation potentials. Exploratory study design was adopted for a period of six (6) months, May to November, 2023. Seven (7) randomly selected plots of 1sq.m were located on Oke saje dumpsite, from where solid wastes were collected from top to the depth of 300 mm. Waste components were weighed to obtain the weight-based characterizations. Sorting into major waste components was in accordance with College and University Recycling Council (CURC) grouping system with modifications to accommodate peculiar waste stream generated in Oke saje dumpsite. Waste samples were taken to laboratory to carry our necessary physical, chemical and proximate analyses. Estimated total solid waste generation in Oke- saje, dumpsite was 3,718,832.03 kg (3718.83 tonnes). Estimated energy content of solid wastes was 46370.47MJ. This implies that there is possibility of electricity generation up to 12.881MWh from daily steam production. An integrated solid waste management concept adoptable to Oke- saje, dumpsite, has zero waste concept of about 46 % waste material recyclable (from composting, bio-fuel production and recyclables), with electricity generating potential of 5.923 KWh and 56 % energy recovery (from electricity generation, incineration-derived ash and residual ash for landfilling or soil enhancement), of about 6.956 KWh. Considering the high material recyclability, reusability and energy recovery potentials from solid wastes generated from Oke saje dumpsite, it was recommended that the Ogun State Waste Management Authority adopts affordable, sustainable and integrated waste management options of waste minimization and sorting from the source, reuse, recycling, and incineration of solid waste generated from the large communities within the state.

Dissolved and particulate phase phthalic acid esters in urban, suburban, and rural riverine catchments along the southeast coast of India after the COVID-19 pandemic

Dumped waste plastics have been evidenced as a potential source for harmful chemicals along the riverine regions of India. Furthermore, Corona Virus Disease – 19 (COVID-19) pandemic resulted in a subsequent surge in the use of personal protective equipment (PPE) related single-use plastics and Tamil Nadu was India's second major waste generator. Given the newer challenges from dumped waste plastics along the four major rivers of Tamil Nadu emptying into the Bay of Bengal, we investigated thirteen phthalic acid esters (PAEs), in both dissolved and particulate phases of river water and drinking water samples. Ʃ13PAEs in both phases followed the urban > suburban > rural catchment trend. Di (2-ethyl hexyl) phthalate (DEHP) was ubiquitous in both phases and the sites having a prevalence of open burning activities in the urban catchment showed elevated levels. The suburban and rural catchments of the Kaveri River (KR) and Thamirabharani River (TR) were predominated by DEP and DEHP. It is noteworthy that in the urban catchment, Ln (DiBP) and dissolved organic carbon (Ln DOC), were strongly correlated (R2 = 0.894, p < 0.05). Furthermore, a significant increase of DiBP (p < 0.05) in the urban catchment after the second phase of the pandemic most likely resulted from the wide use of DiBP in PPE plastics. Community-stored water from urban catchment was found to have a maximum of ∑13PAEs up to 3769.38 ng/L in the dissolved phase with elevated DMP concentrations leading to higher estrogenic equivalent. The average daily intake for dissolved phase PAEs was below the USEPA-recommended limit for drinking water. However, prolonged exposure to heavier PAEs in particulate matter cannot be ignored. Estimated ecotoxicological risk assessment showed the highest risk for fish species due to DEHP.