Major Philosophers Research Articles

JOHN WALBRIDGE, The Leaven of the Ancients: Suhrawardi and the Heritage of the Greeks, SUNY Series in Islam (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999). Pp. 323. $28.50 cloth, $27.95 paper.

In the Leaven of the Ancients, John Walbridge studies the appropriation of non–Peripatetic philosophical ideas by an anti–Aristotelian Islamic philosopher, Shihab al-Din al-Suhrawardi (d. 1191). He proposes a comprehensive explanation of the origin of Suhrawardi's philosophical system, a revival of the “wisdom of the Ancients” and its philosophical affiliations “grounded” in Greek philosophy (p. xiii). Walbridge attempts to uncover the reasons for Suhrawardi's rejection of the prevailing neo–Aristotelian synthesis in Islamic philosophy, Suhrawardi's knowledge and understanding of non–Aristotelian Greek philosophy, the ancient philosophers Suhrawardi was attempting to follow, the relationship between Suhrawardi's specific philosophical teachings (logic, ontology, physics, and metaphysics), and his understanding of non–Aristotelian ancient philosophy and the relationship between Suhrawardi's system and the major Greek philosophers, schools, and traditions—in particular the Presocratics, Plato, and the Stoics (p. 8). Copyright © 2003 Cambridge University Press

Fifty Key Medieval Thinkers (review)

218 Reviews Parergon 20.1 (2003) The book has no footnotes or endnotes, presumably so as to appeal to a general audience. At the end there is a section of ‘Further Reading’ which presents an annotated bibliography for each chapter. The references provided are all of top quality. However, a reader wishing to follow up a certain anecdote in the text will not necessarily know from which of the many references this anecdote has been taken. Some brief pointers in the body of the text would have helped here. Like all books on medieval Britain, most examples come from England, although useful sections on Scotland in particular point out where customs in one country differed from those in another. Elizabeth Freeman School of History and Classics University of Tasmania Evans, Gillian R., Fifty Key Medieval Thinkers, London/New York, Routledge, 2002; paper; pp. xxxiv, 183; RRP US$18.95; ISBN 041523663. This slim and attractively produced volume is part of the Routledge ‘Key’ series, which includes titles such as Fifty Key Jewish Thinkers, Fifty Key Thinkers on History and Fifty Major Philosophers. Dr. Evans’ work surveys the fifty ‘key’ figures who shaped medieval intellectual life in the period 354-1495 CE. For such a task, the author self-consciously adopts the medieval pedagogic technique known as the accessus, an informal introductory technique by which a medieval teacher introduced students to a new book, providing the name of the work, its author, its subject matter (materia), its purpose (intentio) and the manner in which it would treat its subject (modus tractandi). Evans’ format, likewise, for each of the fifty ‘key’ figures, presents a summary of that thinker’s life, main theories and influence, followed by a short select bibliography and list of further reading. Each entry varies in length from three or four pages to about ten pages, and the work proceeds in a roughly chronological order. Evans introduces the collection with an essay which outlines the literary genres, the notion of authorities, interpretative techniques and the development of the disciplines of language, which were peculiar to the Middle Ages. Such an accessus not only provides essential reading for the undergraduate student new to medieval sources, but also for the more experienced researcher and teacher. Evans calls upon her nearly thirty years of scholarship on medieval theology, philosophy and the liberal arts, and concludes: ‘The great achievement Reviews 219 Parergon 20.1 (2003) of the Middle Ages was the development of technical precision in the use of logic and language to conduct this weighing exercise [reasoning]’ (p. xxxii). The choice of fifty entries, Evans acknowledges, is an arbitrary one and the medieval thinkers included were those ‘important in their time’ or who ‘had things to say which are still being taken seriously’ (p. viii). Anselm of Canterbury would be a representative of the latter category for the ‘sheer durability of his ideas’ and ‘their intrinsic value and importance’ (p. 71). The emphasis is on theologians and philosophers. Many omitted figures Evans characterizes as important ‘supporting players’. The geographical coverage is limited to Western Europe. As Evans explains, the East did not undergo the Latins’ ‘Aristotelian grapple’ (p. vii). The list of the ‘top fifty’ is as interesting for its inclusions as its omissions. Along with Augustine, Ambrose and Jerome represent the late classical patristic tradition. The inclusion of Cassiodorus is justifiable, but Pseudo-Dionysius is rather more surprising. Boethius and Pope Gregory the Great are natural inclusions from the later Church Fathers, along with Isidore of Seville and Bede. Evans includes several theologians and writers from the Carolingian and postCarolingian cultural milieu, such as Paschasius Radbertus, Johannes Scotus Eriugena, Hincmar of Rheims and Remigius of Auxerre, but omits Alcuin. Also present are Gerbert of Aurillac and Berengar of Tours, but not Lanfranc of Bec, who was Berengar’s arch contagonist. Among the eleventh-century figures is the canonist Ivo of Chartres, but Gratian’s Decretum is not deemed worthy of this pantheon of greats. The twelfth century, which alone could no doubt have its own list of fifty key thinkers, provides such significant figures as Hugh of St. Victor, Adelard of Bath, Rupert of Deutz, Peter Abelard and Bernard of Clairvaux...

New Perspectives on Metaphysical Solipsism

C. D. Rollins, in Solipsism, classifies solipsism into two categories, epistemological and metaphysical,1 and observes that while many philosophers have championed epistemological solipsism, no major philosopher has advocated ontological solipsism. Of epistemological solipsism he says: In some degree or style has been espoused by almost every major philosopher since Descartes. After all, is easy to believe that knowledge about what exists is empirical and that all empirical knowledge originates in inner cognitive states of persons. (Rollins, 1967, 490) Rollins indicates that for a time metaphysical solipsism was not dismissed completely-he says that was often considered implausible but incapable of being re futed2 (Rollins 1967, 488)-but that Wittgenstein's private language argument virtually dealt a death blow.3 In present essay, however, shall use considerations pertaining to Cantor's diagonal argument to suggest that private language argument is not final word on subject. When have reached this point in my argument, solipsism will still be just one theory among many; but shall then provide reasons that may increase its plausibility, even if only slightly. Metaphysical Solipsism As is well known, metaphysical solipsism has tended to be expressed by catch-phrases such as Only exist and I am whole of reality. Neither of these expressions is adequate; as Bertrand Russell, in Human Knowledge: its Scope and Limits, points out, the words have no clear meaning unless doctrine is false (Russell, 1948, 176). That aside, however-for moment, at least-the fact that metaphysical solipsism has had no major proponent is perhaps not surprising: presumably any such proponent would feel no need to record ideas for others who are considered to be illusory. Fortunately, more detailed summaries of metaphysical solipsistic position are available: Every claim concerning existence or nonexistence of anything is grounded in experience and could not possibly extend beyond it. An existential claim which seemed to reach beyond experience could have no basis or reference; would apparently be unintelligible and not strictly a claim at all. But experience is essentially immediate; in itself is never mistaken (only inferences from can be mistaken), and is had by one person only and is private to him. Hence, existential claims can never truly, and perhaps never with full intelligibility, claim more than existence of experiencing self and its states, and indeed perhaps never claim more than this as of moment of experience. (Rollins 1967, 488) It goes without saying that many philosophers have taken some or all of above ideas as a starting point for an argument, if only to criticize argument later. Descartes is obvious example of a philosopher who does this. But is generally accepted that Descartes' attempt to re-establish reality of his doubted world (by means of claiming, via ontological argument, etc., reality of God and then claiming it is impossible for him ever to deceive me [Descartes, 1941, 111]) is questionable to say least. One receives impression on reading Descartes that he is clutching, for emotional reasons (solipsism is felt to be implausible), at anything and everything that might return conviction that there is a real, exterior world. The above is not really a defense of metaphysical solipsism, of course. Are there, in fact, any generally-accepted defenses of position? Perhaps one of most telling is that there can be no absolute distinction between epistemological and metaphysical solipsism. Rollins says: One may be allowed conclusion, perhaps, that particular advocacies of knowledge solipsism do not differ from one another in having or not having resemblance to reality solipsism, but rather in degree of that resemblance. (Rollins, 1967, 490; my emphasis) This point is important, because, as mentioned above, epistemological solipsism has been almost as overwhelmingly endorsed as metaphysical solipsism has been overwhelmingly condemned. …

Kotarbiński As A Scientific Realist

Tadeusz Kotarbinski is widely recognized as a major philosopher of theLvov–Warsaw school. His reism, which is a contribution to semantics andontology, is still discussed and debated, and his most original creation, praxiology,has grown into an entire research field. However, Kotarbinski's philosophy ofscience has not received much attention by later commentators. This paper attemptsto correct this situation by considering the hypothesis that Kotarbinski succeededalready in 1929 in formulating a position that can be regarded as an early version ofscientific realism. Unlike most other ``scientific philosophers'' before the mid-thirties,he was able to combine ontological realism (by defending a form of physicalism andnominalism) and semantical realism (by defending the classical correspondence theoryof truth). He was also a critical epistemological realist. Further, in spite of theinstrumentalist flavour of his reductionist programme in eliminating terms apparentlyreferring to abstract entities, Kotarbinski accepted theories as statements with truth values and theoretical entities as long as they can be understood as physical bodies.

“Pure Experience” and the Problem of Order in the Early Philosophy of Nishida Kitarō

The article focuses on the analysis of “pure experience” (junsui keiken), one of the key concepts in the early philosophy of Nishida Kitarō, major Japanese philosopher of the twentieth century, as reflected in his first important book An Inquiry into the Good (Zen no kenkyu). Notwithstanding its Zen Buddhist origin, Nishidean “pure experience” bears strong similarities with the philosophical perspectives of such “psychologically oriented” western thinkers as Wil/iam James and Maurice Merleau-Ponty. Nishida, being in constant dialogue and discussion with the western philosophical tradition, was in constant search of the “logic of the East” as different from that of the West. In contrast to a classical western rationalist position treating perceptive experience as a passive, nebulous and non-discriminating state of consciousness, and reflection as active and creative, Nishida argues for a “systematic character of consciousness” from the very start, “when there is still no subject and object”. Therefore it seems productive for the purposes of the present article to link the concept of “pure experience” to one of the most fundamental philosophical categories, to that of order. For; we strongly believe, it is here that the obvious differences between Nishida and his western counterparts is revealed, bringing him close, however; to the “artistic standpoints” of such western authors as Nietzsche and the above mentioned French phenomenologist Merleau-Ponty.

Harry Broudy's aesthetics and music education

This paper centres on Harry Broudy, the scholar who was the first to argue, consistently and extensively, for aesthetics as a foundation for music education in American public schools. Broudy, considered by many as the major philosopher of education in the second part of the 20th century, was not a musician or music educator. His framing of the discipline of school music as aesthetic education evolved out of his philosophy of general education for citizenship, grounded within an ethical framework. In this paper, I examine Broudy's philosophy of music education within the larger context of his thinking, and its impact on music educators in the USA.

From Medieval Philosophy to the Virtual Library: a descriptive framework for scientific knowledge and documentation as basis for document retrieval

This paper examines the conceptual basis of document retrieval systems for the Virtual Library in science and technology. It does so through analysing some cognitive models for scientific knowledge, drawing on philosophy, sociology and linguistics. It is important to consider improvements in search/ retrieval functionalities for scientific documents because knowledge creation and transfer are integral to the functioning of scientific communities, and on a larger scale, science and technology are central to the knowledge economy. This paper proposes four new and innovative understandings. Firstly, it is proposed that formal scientific communication constitutes the documentation and dissemination of concepts, and that conceptualism is a useful philosophical basis for study. Second, it is proposed that the scientific document is a dyadic con-struct, being both the physical manifestation as an encoded medium, and also being the associated knowledge, or intangible ideation, that is carried within the document. Third, it is shown that major philosophers of science divide science into three main activities, dealing with data, derived or inferred laws, and the axioms or the paradigm. Fourth, it is demonstrated that the data, information and conceptual frameworks carried by a scientific document, as different levels of signification or semiotic systems, can each be characterised in ways assisting in search and retrieval functionalities for the Virtual Library.

The Simpsons and philosophy: the d'oh! of Homer

A light-hearted introduction to philosophy through the antics of the Simpsons, television's animated family. These essays on the silly, absurd, hyper-ironic and strangely philosophical world that is Springfield - the town without a state - explore philosophy and the major philosophers of Western thought: is Bart a pragmatist? Why is Mr Burn's quest for happiness continually frustrated? The contributors discuss the thought of key philosophers including Aristotle, Marx, Camus, Sartre, Heidegger and Kant, and tackle issues like irony and the meaning of life, American anti-intellectualism, and existential rebellion. The volume also includes an episode guide and a chronology of philosophers which gives the names and dates of the major thinkers in the history of philosophy, accompanied by a representative quote from each.

Grounded ethics: the empirical bases of normative judgements

Scientific naturalism--basing beliefs on empirical evidence--has now triumphed in every field of inquiry except moral philosophy. There it is still thought appropriate to cite otherworldly standards known by divine revelation or moral intuition. In Grounded Ethics Max Hocutt argues that, since there is no transcendent reality on which to base the claims of ethics, normative truth must be sought in the desires of individuals and the conventions of societies. Hocutt begins with an empiricist analysis of normative judgments. Following B.F. Skinner, he asserts that we call good what reinforces our desires, and that we call right or just what we desire to reinforce. Consequently, desire is the immediate measure of both goodness and justice. Acknowledging that goodness is relative to individual preferences, and justice is relative to social norms, Hocutt denies that goodness is a matter of personal opinion and that every society's institutions are as good as every other's. Instead, he says, the conduct of individuals and the customs of societies must ultimately be evaluated by how well they serve biologically based needs. These must be discovered empirically, because they cannot be known a priori. In support of this analysis, Hocutt challenges rationalist belief, that normative concepts cannot be defined in empirical terms because they are rooted in divine law or ideals of pure reason. Against this view, Hocutt argues that if the moral law exists only as an ideal, it is not binding in the same sense as the empirically known laws and moralities of actual societies. He also points out that rationalist intuitions are best understood as expressions of animal instinct, socially conditioned prejudice, and personal preference. In addition, he offers extensive critiques of major philosophers, both ancient and modern, who hold contrary views. All of this is meant to show that there is no escaping the empirical: A sensible ethics must be built on observable facts; it cannot be pulled from a vague but pious rationalist sky. Hocutt's demonstration of this thesis will interest philosophers, behavioral biologists, sociologists and ethicists.

Essentials of Neo-Confucianism: Eight Major Philosophers of the Song and Ming Periods. By Siu-chi Huang. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing, 1999. 280 pp. $85.00

Essentials of Neo-Confucianism: Eight Major Philosophers of the Song and Ming Periods. By Siu-chi Huang. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing, 1999. 280 pp. $85.00

Morbid objectivization in psychopathology.

The fundamental problems of schizophrenia are wrongly formulated unless one takes heed of the major philosophical revolution which Kant initiated with the publication of the Critique of Pure Reason in 1781. Virtually all major philosophers since then have adhered to the view that the mind objectifies whatever energy fields/atoms, etc., are 'out there'. The thesis put forward in this lecture will be that schizophrenia is a condition in which this process proceeds too far. Evidence from the psychopathology of body, time and world is offered in support of such morbid objectivization.

:Machiavelli, Leonardo, and the Science of Power

In recent years, Niccolo Machiavelli's works have been viewed primarily with historical interest as analyses of the tactics used by immoral political officials. author in this text, argues that Machiavelli should be reconsidered as a major philosopher whose thought makes the wisdom of antiquity accessible to the modern (and post-modern) condition, and whose understanding of human nature is superior to that of such moderns as Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Marx or Mill. Central to this claim is the author's discovery that Machiavelli knew and worked with Leonardo da Vinci between 1502-1507. After introducing historical evidence of the circumstances in which da Vinci and Machiavelli probably met, the author reinterprets The Prince in the light of what came to be modern science. He presents an account of Machiavelli's teaching as a scientific approach to human nature and politics. In this reading, the lion, fox, and wolves symbolise principles studied in contemporary biology, whereas the dikes and dams controlling the river of fortune describe Machiavelli's experience of diverting the Arno river, apparently aided by Leonardo's expertise, in hopes of winning a war with Pisa. Masters relates Machiaveli's views to the history of centralised governments, to models in rational choice or game theory, and to neo-Darwinian evolutionary theory. This approach shows how Machiavelli's view of leadership clarifies the role of television in industrialised societies and the profound transformations in contemporary politics.

Filosofia ellenistica e cultura moderna: Epicureismo, stoicismo e scetticismo da Bayle a Hegel (review)

Reviewed by: Filosofia ellenistica e cultura moderna: Epicureismo, stoicismo e scetticismo da Bayle a Hegel by Giovanni Bonacina José R. Maia Neto Giovanni Bonacina. Filosofia ellenistica e cultura moderna: Epicureismo, stoicismo e scetticismo da Bayle a Hegel. Firenze: Casa Editrice Le Lettere, 1996. Pp. 358. Paper, L 52,000. The Hellenistic schools played a major role in the rise of modern philosophy during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Stoicism was influential in the development of a secular ethics emancipated from theology, Epicureanism in the mechanical and corpuscular views of the new science, and Skepticism in the predominant role that epistemology assumed in modern philosophy. Bonacina shows that this influence continued to be considerable during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. He examines the treatment of these three Hellenistic philosophies by a large number of (mostly German) historians of philosophy and by the main philosophers of the period. Among the historians, Bonacina detects a progressive drive towards historical objectivity. However, the religious interest in the assessment of the ancient schools is still noticeable until the early eighteenth century when it begins to be increasingly replaced by contemporary philosophical sympathies and affiliations. This interest is even stronger among the main philosophers of the period, who use the Hellenistic philosophies as weapons in the intellectual battles in which they were engaged. A brief summary of the main aspects of this use, first of Stoicism and Epicureanism, and then of Skepticism, by some of the major philosophers examined by Bonacina will illustrate this central point of the book. Bayle continues Gassendi’s project of rehabilitating Epicurus. But his effort is not to make Epicureanism compatible with Christianity. He uses Epicurus’ philosophy to enhance his opposition to rational theology and Epicurus’ alleged virtuous life to corroborate his view that forced conversions cannot be justified by the need to make atheists or heretics good citizens. According to Bayle, Stoics—unlike Skeptics and Epicureans and like Catholic monks—are intolerant dogmatists, holding views incompatible with the true religion. A few years later, in the context of the French Enlightenment, the assessment of Stoicism and Epicureanism is still determined by antireligious controversy, but now revelation itself becomes the main target. Diderot, d’Holbach and La Mettrie all hold that a Stoic ethics which despises the passions is incompatible with human nature (just like Christian morals and contrary to Epicurean morals). Voltaire’s evaluation of Stoicism and Epicureanism strikes both his contemporary materialists and Christianity. Stoic deism is for Voltaire the alternative both to materialism and to revealed religion. Bonacina also shows that the Stoic/Epicurean opposition in ethics is an important weapon among the British moralists. While Shaftesbury finds in Stoicism [End Page 324] support for his view of innate moral feelings, Mandeville opposes him, attacking Stoicism and defending Epicureanism. Moving to the German context, Bonacina shows that Kant is often sympathetic towards Epicurus, in particular when the ancient philosopher is contrasted with modern ones. Epicurus’s materialism may have had only a phenomenal status and is more internally consistent than a modern materialism such as Locke’s, who accepts the existence of a nonmaterial God and soul. As to Stoic ethics, Kant claims that it is partially true—to the extent that virtue is not conditioned—and partially false, for the Stoics think of the summum bonum as empirically available whereas it is an ideal of practical reason. Hegel also uses Stoicism and Epicureanism for the vindication of his own philosophy and criticism of established ones. For instance, Stoic ethics is a step in the development of the Mind, but just like Kantian ethics it is empty, deprived of ethicity and therefore in need of being dialectically overcome. Skepticism plays perhaps an even larger role in the philosophical debates of the period. Bayle takes the Skeptic standpoint (in opposition to the dogmatist in general and to the Stoic in particular) as the model for the historian of ideas who must objectively report the views and critically examine them without religious and philosophical preconceptions. Even more than Epicurus, Pyrrho is presented as a foe of rational theology and as indirectly showing the need of appealing to pure faith. Bonacina then examines the role played by Skepticism in the...

Cumulation, Evaluation and the Research Process: A Response to Starr & Siverson

The overarching objective of the original article was to apply a well-defined set of measures in a systematic and objective way to evaluate the extent of scientific progress within a given research program. The measures chosen were identified and defined by major philosophers of science. These measures were then applied to the empirical studies on the diffusion of war. Starr and Siverson claim to find problems in my analysis that undermined the conclusions I reach. This reply argues that each of their claims is unfounded. Moreover, they fail to refute the conclusion that the marginal progressiveness of their program is a significant reason for reduced interest in this topic.

A Crash Course in Metaphysics for the Database Designer

Information modeling is the first stage of database design. The central problem in information modeling is the identification of the proper set of objects to be included in the model. The wrong set of objects can lead to data integrity problems and incorrect information being delivered to unwitting users. A subtle but important point is that the information model represents object classes which are groupings of objects with similar characteristics. At the heart of the problem of identifying object classes is the question “Do object classes exist in the world waiting to be discovered by the information modeler, or are they constructed by the modeler based on abstractions drawn from the application domain?†Although most modeling approaches implicitly assume that object classes do exist, an analysis of the opinions of several major western philosophers from Plato to Wittgenstein suggest that this assumption may be flawed. If this is the case, the practice of information modeling changes dramatically.

Philosophical ethics meets technology: a difficult state of affairs

Technoscientific developments, especially those which operate on/with human beings, are contributing to their reconfiguration in some new, unprecedented ways. Ethics too is revising radically its own field, probing its own foundations. Sensitive to both movements, bioethics is at a difficult crossroads when much is demanded of it. This paper proposes to contribute to the elucidation of the role of philosophical ethics in the area of bioethics through a critical reading of three of our major contemporary philosophers who have been attempting to meet the challenges of (post)modernity.

Husserl's debate with Heidegger in the margins of Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics

Husserl received from Martin Heidegger a copy of his Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics in the summer of 1929 not long before Husserl had determined to reread Heidegger's writings in order to arrive at a definitive position on Heidegger's philosophy. With this in view, Husserl reread and made extensive marginal comments in Being and Time and Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics. This essay by the translator of the remarks in KPM offers some historical background and comment on the importance of the remarks in KPM and attempts to describe Husserl's counterposition to Heidegger on six issues that divided the two major twentieth century philosophers.

Communal and individual mourning dynamics within traditional Jewish law.

This paper discusses how various details of traditional Jewish law (Halakha) reflect human dynamics of mourning, drawing heavily on the approach of the late Joseph B. Soloveitchik, one of the major philosophers of Judaism of this century.

The Philosophical Michael Oakeshott

Michael Oakeshott (1901-90) has been acclaimed in recent years as one of most prominent conservative thinkers ofthe century. He has been called the dominating figure of conservative thought,' and he has been praised for his distinctively contemporary contribution to conservative thought.2 More recently, one scholar has contended that Oakeshott's work provides us with what is perhaps most sophisticated and satisfying statement of liberalism to date.3 Oakeshott's ideas have influenced a generation of political theorists. However, most scholars take Oakeshott to be a fundamentally political thinker, carrying on a tradition of political thought. Although Oakeshott certainly was a political thinker, this approach tends to obscure other aspects of Oakeshott's work and can lead to an overly narrow understanding of his intellectual project. This essay will focus on an aspect of Oakeshott's philosophical thought, his critique of rationality. I shall ask after its origins and connect it to work of other major philosophers of his era. By looking at Oakeshott in context and studying evolution of his critique of rationality, we can gain a richer understanding of his work as a whole and better understand his place in recent intellectual history. Here focus is on Oakeshott' s Rationalism in Politics and Other Essays (1962), which comprises essays published between 1947 and 1962.4 My essay

Biomedical Research & the Animal Rights Movement: A Contrast in Values

Research Article| April 01 1993 Biomedical Research & the Animal Rights Movement: A Contrast in Values Adrian R. Morrison Adrian R. Morrison Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar The American Biology Teacher (1993) 55 (4): 204–208. https://doi.org/10.2307/4449633 Views Icon Views Article contents Figures & tables Video Audio Supplementary Data Peer Review Share Icon Share Facebook Twitter LinkedIn MailTo Tools Icon Tools Get Permissions Cite Icon Cite Search Site Citation Adrian R. Morrison; Biomedical Research & the Animal Rights Movement: A Contrast in Values. The American Biology Teacher 1 April 1993; 55 (4): 204–208. doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/4449633 Download citation file: Ris (Zotero) Reference Manager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest filter your search All ContentThe American Biology Teacher Search This content is only available via PDF. Copyright 1993 National Association of Biology Teachers Article PDF first page preview Close Modal You do not currently have access to this content.