Major League Baseball Teams Research Articles

Effective Promotions through Social Media:A Case of Major League Baseball Teams

This study examined if the impacts of Facebook promotions on fan engagement were moderated by team performance in the Major League Baseball. Two teams showing the opposite results in the 2015 seasons were selected. Likes, Shares, and Comments were measured as indicators of fan engagement. All posts were categorised in the five promotion types. A two-way MANOVA was carried out to see if there were any differences in Facebook Likes, Shares, and Comments for differing promotion types and team performance. The results revealed that there were statistically significant interaction effects between promotion types and team performance on Likes and Shares. For player/personnel promotion and team information, the numbers of Likes and Shares were significantly higher than the other promotion types for both teams. For Likes and Shares by the two significant promotion types, Royals had significantly higher mean scores than did Phillies.

Sport Fan Evaluations of a Major League Baseball Season: Key Predictors and Influence on Future Evaluations and Consumption Behaviors

ABSTRACTThe current study examined fan evaluations of Major League Baseball team performance for a previous season as well as predictions of, and consumption expectations for, an upcoming season. With respect to evaluations of the recently completed season, appraisals were positively predicted by team identification, actual wins, and the number of playoff series played; evaluations were negatively predicted by simply making the playoffs. As for expectations for the next season, evaluations of the previous season, team identification, and actual wins were key predictors as those with more positive evaluations, higher levels of identification, and rooting for teams with fewer wins expected better performances from their team. Regarding consumption, team identification and expectations for the upcoming year were frequent predictors of a variety of consumption forms (e.g. attendance at home games, television viewing).

Do Major League Baseball Team Physicians Harvest the Semitendinosus From the Drive Leg or Landing Leg When Performing Ulnar Collateral Ligament Reconstruction on Elite Baseball Pitchers?

Background:Hamstring autograft is a common graft choice when performing ulnar collateral ligament reconstruction (UCLR).Purpose/Hypothesis:The purpose of this study was to survey Major League Baseball (MLB) team physicians and determine whether these physicians harvest the hamstring (semitendinosus or gracilis) from the drive leg (ipsilateral to surgical site) or landing leg (contralateral to surgical site) when performing UCLR on elite-level pitchers. The hypothesis was that the majority of surgeons harvest the hamstring from the drive leg when performing a UCLR.Study Design:Descriptive epidemiology study.Methods:Overall, 52 MLB team orthopaedic surgeons were sent the 5-question online survey. The survey assessed surgeon UCLR volume, surgical technique, which leg the hamstring graft was harvested from, the reasoning for choosing that particular leg, and whether the surgeon would change their practice if evidence showed the hamstring from one of the legs was more important than the other. The survey was sent out 5 separate times to maximize the response rate.Results:Forty (77%) MLB team physicians completed the survey. The largest number of surgeons (n = 16; 40%) performed between 5 and 14 UCLRs annually, while 6 (15%) performed more than 50 UCLRs annually. Most surgeons (n = 23; 57.5%) used the docking technique. Significantly more surgeons harvested the hamstring from the landing leg (n = 29; 72.5%) compared with the drive leg (n = 11; 27.5%) (P = .007). More surgeons cited the reason for their choice of leg as a belief that the hamstring they harvested plays less of a role in the ability of a pitcher to generate a forceful pitch (n = 25; 62.5%) than for logistical reasons in the operating room (n = 15; 37.5%); this difference was not statistically significant. Significantly more surgeons would change their practice (n = 35; 87.5%) if evidence showed the hamstrings from a specific (drive or landing) leg to be more active in the throwing motion compared with those who would not (P < .001).Conclusion:When performing a UCLR using hamstring autograft, the majority of MLB team physicians harvest the hamstring from the landing leg as opposed to the drive leg, as they believe the hamstring from the landing leg plays less of a role in generating a forceful pitch than that from the drive leg.

Forearm Flexor Injuries in Major League Baseball Players: Epidemiology, Performance, and Associated Injuries

Objectives:The flexor-pronator mass provides dynamic support to the valgus stresses in the throwing elbow and is protective to the ulnar collateral ligament (UCL). Despite evidence highlighting the importance of the forearm flexor muscles in baseball pitching, no studies have reported the epidemiology, return to play, or associated injuries in elite baseball players. The purpose of this study examine the incidence, treatment, and outcomes of forearm flexor injuries in both Major and Minor League Baseball pitchers.Methods:Injury data attributed to forearm flexor injury in Major League Baseball (MLB) and minor league teams was reviewed from 2010 to 2014. This included the numbers of players, seasonal timing of injury, days of competition missed, pre and post-injury performance data, and subsequent elbow surgery. Performance data collected consisted of ERA (earned run average), WHIP (walks plus hits per innings pitched), walks, strikeouts, and percent strikes.Results:In MLB, 134 forearm flexor injuries occurred with a mean player age of 28.6 years and 111 (82.8%) were pitchers. In the minor leagues, 629 injuries occurred with a mean age of 22.8 years where 494 (78.5%) were pitchers. The highest percentage of injuries occurred in the month of July in both MLB (17.2%) and the minor leagues (17%). The median time spent on the disabled list (DL) for MLB players was 42 days (mean 128.1) compared to 28 days (mean 105.7) in the minor leagues. Of the players in MLB who sustained a forearm injury, subsequent injuries included 50 shoulder (37.3%), 48 elbow (35.8%), and 24 forearm (17.9%) injuries. Over the study period, 26 (19.4%) MLB and 56 minor league players (8.9%) required UCL reconstruction within 365 days of sustaining a forearm injury. Performance declined in virtually all categories in the season leading to the injury when compared to the previous season (n = 75) and significant differences were present in walks plus hits per inning pitched (WHIP) (from 1.24 to 1.34, P = 0.04) and strike percentage (63% to 62%, P = 0.036).Conclusion:Flexor-pronator injuries are responsible for considerable time on the DL in elite pitchers. Injury may be preceded with declines in performance and be associated with subsequent injuries to the shoulder and elbow.Forearm Flexor Strains per Year in Pitchers and Position Players in the MLBYearInjuriesPitchersPosition Players201026206201123194201225196201331274201429263Total134111 (82.8%)23 (17.2%)

How fans are engaging with baseball teams demonstrating multiple objectives on Instagram

PurposeUsing uses and gratifications theory as a guide, the purpose of this paper is to examine how fans are engaging with Major League Baseball (MLB) teams that are utilizing Instagram postings to demonstrate sporting, business, and social objectives.Design/methodology/approachAn analysis of 1,500 photos (50 from each team) was conducted. A content analysis analyzed the content of the photo, and a textual analysis was implemented to examine the use of hashtags by the teams on their Instagram photos.FindingsPosts that overly demonstrated the business and social objectives had some of the lowest numbers of likes and comments, indicating that fan engagement is not often achieved through these methods.Originality/valueResults of this research demonstrate that while MLB teams are able to address their multiple objectives on Instagram, fans are not necessarily interested in all three of these efforts. Posts about on-field action, consumer buying opportunities, and charitable efforts were all created by the majority of teams, but the sporting objective posts had, by far, the highest average number of both likes and comments when compared to the charitable and promotional objectives of the teams. Therefore, the results provide some best practices for teams looking to use the photo and video sharing network.

Professional Sporting Events and Traffic: Evidence from US Cities

Sporting events concentrate people at specific locations on game day. No empirical evidence currently exists linking sporting events to local traffic conditions. We analyze urban mobility data from 25 US metropolitan areas with MLB teams over the period 1990 to 2014 to assess the relationship between local traffic and Major League Baseball (MLB) games. Instrumental variable regression results indicate MLB attendance causes increases in local vehicle-miles traveled. At the sample average attendance of 2.8 million, average daily vehicle-miles traveled increases by about 6.9% in cities with MLB teams. Traffic congestion increases by 2%, suggesting that MLB games generate congestion externalities.

Ch-Ch-Ch-changes: How Action Phase Functional Leadership, Team Human Capital, and Interim vs. Permanent Leader Status Impact Post-transition Team Performance

This study addresses the following: (1) does a team leader change along with the quality of the team’s human capital affect post-change team performance?; (2) is functional leadership of the team’s human capital a driver of post-change team performance?; and (3) should interim vs. permanent leaders manage the team’s human capital differently? We analyzed archival data from Major League Baseball teams who had undergone an in-season manager change (N = 129). Team performance improved after a leader change, and the quality of the team’s strategic and non-strategic core human capital were positively related to post-change performance. New leaders who engaged in more active functional leadership of the strategic core human capital enhanced the positive effects of human capital quality. Additionally, active functional leadership enhanced the positive effects of strategic core human capital for interim replacement leaders, but not for permanent replacement leaders. This study extends theory and practice on the importance of functional team leadership and human capital following a leader transition. As such, our results provide actionable knowledge for organizations and managers who are part of leadership transitions. This empirical study leverages a unique sample to provide insights into the implications of team leader transitions. The results of this study shed light on the impact that leader transitions which involve “interim” and “permanent” replacements may have on post-transition team performance and how these different types of leaders should leverage the inherent human capital that exists within the team.

Applying Customer Lifetime Value to Major League Baseball Season Tickets

Customer lifetime value (CLV) is a commonly used metric for assessing marketing performance among businesses; however, there is little evidence of the use of CLV in Major League Baseball (MLB). The authors provide a methodology for calculating CLV for season ticket buyers to properly account for all direct revenue streams for a fan attending an MLB game, including ticket, concession, parking, and auxiliary revenues. Applications for customer lifetime value for MLB teams includes measuring the effectiveness of marketing activities, identifying seating that is over/under priced, and assisting in the management of fan experiences. Subscribe to JASM

Predicting Win-Loss outcomes in MLB regular season games – A comparative study using data mining methods

AbstractBaseball is a statistically filled sport, and predicting the winner of a particular Major League Baseball (MLB) game is an interesting and challenging task. Up to now, there is no definitive formula for determining what factors will conduct a team to victory, but through the analysis of many years of historical records many trends could emerge. Recent studies concentrated on using and generating new statistics called sabermetrics in order to rank teams and players according to their perceived strengths and consequently applying these rankings to forecast specific games. In this paper, we employ sabermetrics statistics with the purpose of assessing the predictive capabilities of four data mining methods (classification and regression based) for predicting outcomes (win or loss) in MLB regular season games. Our model approach uses only past data when making a prediction, corresponding to ten years of publicly available data. We create a dataset with accumulative sabermetrics statistics for each MLB team during this period for which data contamination is not possible. The inherent difficulties of attempting this specific sports prediction are confirmed using two geometry or topology based measures of data complexity. Results reveal that the classification predictive scheme forecasts game outcomes better than regression scheme, and of the four data mining methods used, SVMs produce the best predictive results with a mean of nearly 60% prediction accuracy for each team. The evaluation of our model is performed using stratified 10-fold cross-validation.

What Gramsci Can Tell Sport Communication Scholars About How Civic Leaders Sell Sports to Their Communities: A Look at the Braves’ Move to Atlanta

Antonio Gramsci argued that ruling classes stayed in power as much through cultural hegemony as through economic hegemony or brute force. Gramsci maintained that the dominant class established and maintained this cultural hegemony through negotiation and persuasion. Gramsci’s theory offers much to sport communication scholars who try to ascertain why certain communities (especially their civic leaders) build stadiums to attract major-league sports teams and events despite mounting economic evidence that these ventures often fail to yield the financial benefits touted by their advocates. This paper uses Gramsci’s theory to examine how the civic leaders of Atlanta enticed the populace and sporting press to use public funds to build a new sports stadium in the mid-1960s. Atlanta’s leaders used the sports stadium not only to lure a Major League Baseball team to the city but also to persuade the city’s populace that this move made the metropolis “big league.”

An optimization approach to designing a baseball scout network

We study the problem of assigning and scheduling minor league scouts for Major League Baseball (MLB) teams. There are multiple objectives in this problem. We formulate the problem as an integer program, use decomposition and both column-generation-based and problem-specific heuristics to solve it, and evaluate policies on multiple objective dimensions based on 100 bootstrapped season schedules. Our approach can allow teams to improve operationally by finding better scout schedules, to understand quantitatively the strategic tradeoffs inherent in scout assignment policies, and to select the assignment policy whose strategic and operational performance best meets their needs.

Applying the Concept of Sport Affordability to Professional Sporting Events: The Case of the Major League Baseball Games

The cost of attending professional sporting events has been increasing steadily but the median household income has been relatively stagnant over the last three decades. While sport fans have increasingly spent more of their income on experiencing professional sport games, little information is available on a relationship between the costs of attending professional sporting events and sport consumers’ ability to pay and how this relationship has changed over time. Similar to housing affordability, this study proposed the concept of sport affordability, measured with a ratio between per capita income and the income needed to attend a sporting event and examined the degree of changes in the sport affordability index over time. The study results showed that the sport affordability index has become polarized among major league baseball teams. For 21 teams, the study showed that their sport affordability indexes have been deteriorating steadily over time but the trend was different for the other eight franchises. Policy and management implications related to equitable accessibility to sport and recreation events and marketing strategies are discussed.

DOES OPTION THEORY HOLD FOR MAJOR LEAGUE BASEBALL CONTRACTS?

We test whether option theory indicated by the Black–Scholes formula is consistent with contract negotiations between teams and players in Major League Baseball (MLB). Teams use contract options in order to obtain the right to buy a player's services for an extra year when negotiating multiple year contracts. These options are similar to European call options, and should reduce the risk of buying volatile assets (players with high variation in performance). In this paper, we model the decision to buy an option (include an option year in the contract) and whether to exercise the option (pay the option salary in the option year versus buying out the option). The results indicate that the behavior of MLB teams is consistent with standard option theory both in terms of buying and exercising options. The sample is the complete population of free agent hitters who signed new contracts between the years 2003 and 2011. We were unable to find any published literature that has addressed this issue. (JEL ZO, H3)

Using Fan Passion to Predict Attendance, Media Consumption, and Social Media Behaviors

Passion drives sport consumption, but we lack valid relevant measures of passion. The results of two studies provide evidence of a reliable and valid multiple-item passion scale that may be used in the study of sports-related consumption behavior. In Study 1 a multi-item fan passion scale was compared with established social identification fan classification scales to provide evidence of discriminant and predictive validity. Because the passion scale outperformed other relevant fan classification measures, in Study 2 the fan passion scale was compared with current single-item measurement practices employed by National Football League and Major League Baseball teams, and some academics, to classify fans. Findings confirmed the veracity of the multi-item passion measure over categorical and interval fan avidity measures used by leagues and syndicated research providers. Taken together, the studies validate an accurate measure of fan passion that may be used to segment and predict fan behaviors, including consumption of traditional media (television, radio, news, and the team’s website) and consumption of the team’s official social media outlets.

Differences In Movement Competency In Professional Baseball Players From The United States And Dominican Republic.

There is an increasing percentage of international players within Major League Baseball (MLB), specifically from the Dominican Republic (DR). Players from different countries of origin have different training norms, which can affect their resiliency and performance. A proposed influence of athlete durability and performance is fundamental movement patterns. Currently, there is a paucity of studies comparing fundamental movement competency of athletes born in different geographic locations. PURPOSE: To examine differences in fundamental movement patterns in United States (US) versus DR born professional baseball players. METHODS: All players included in the study were recently selected by an MLB team to join their organization. Upon arrival to the facility, each player underwent an initial evaluation, which included the Functional Movement Screen (FMS). Over the course of two years, a total of 142 athletes were included in the study (76 DR and 66 US born). Subjects completed the FMS using the standardized 7 movement tests and the 3 isolated clearing tests. The primary variables studied were composite score, left and right asymmetry, and individual movement standard scores. Two-way Chi square analysis was utilized for the statistical analysis with statistical significance being identified at p<.05. RESULTS: The primary findings were that players from the DR had a larger number of 1’s (7.8% vs. 3.0%) and 3’s (10.5% vs. 1.5%) on the right-sided hurdle step and they also had a greater percentage of 3’s (82.8% vs. 60.6%) on right-sided shoulder mobility. On the other hand, players from the US had a larger percentage of 3’s (33.3% vs. 13.4%) and a lower percentage of 1’s (2.2% vs. 15.1%) on the active straight leg raise, and a greater percentage of passable scores (≥2, 99.5% vs. 65.8%) on the trunk stability push up. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that fundamental movement competency differs between US and DR born professional baseball players. Specifically, DR players displayed greater upper extremity mobility in comparison to US players who exhibited greater core stabilization and lower extremity mobility. Based on these movement competency differences, a player’s country of origin may be taken into account in order to create an effective training program.

An examination of Oliver’s product loyalty framework

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to test Oliver’s two-dimension (fortitude and community/social support) product loyalty framework. Design/methodology/approach – Oliver categorized each of the two dimensions into high and low, creating a two-by-two framework: low fortitude and low-community/social support (Product Superiority group); low fortitude and high-community/social support (Village Envelopment group); high fortitude and low-community/social support (Determined Self-isolation group); high fortitude and high-community/social support (Immersed Self-identity group). The paper uses two samples. The sample from Study 1 was season ticket holders (n=199) of a West Coast (USA) Major League Baseball team. Results indicated preliminary support for Oliver’s four groups and good psychometric properties of the fan community scale and the individual fortitude scale (IFS). Study 2 focussed on attendees (n=458) at two East Coast (USA) Major League Baseball venues. Findings – The multivariate GLM indicated significant differences among Oliver’s groups, but the variance explained was small on past, current, and future attendance. However, in terms of actual games attended, the Immersed Self-identity group attended between 2.5 and 3 times as many games as the Village Envelopment group over the two years, and more than twice as many games as the Product Superiority group. The groups differed substantially on consumption of product extensions: 22.5 percent of the variance in merchandise purchasing was explained by the grouping, 31.9 percent of broadcast media consumption, and 24.9 percent of print media consumption. In all cases, those in the Immersed Self-identity group consumed significantly more than the Product Superiority and Determined Self-isolation groups. Originality/value – The paper reveals that sport marketers can focus on the Immersed Self-identity segment as the segment most likely to consume the product, repurchase, and purchase product extensions.

Treatment of Ulnar Collateral Ligament Injuries and Superior Labral Tears by Major League Baseball Team Physicians

To determine practice patterns of Major League Baseball (MLB) team orthopaedic surgeons in addressing the controversial topics of ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) tears, type II SLAP tears, and partial-thickness rotator cuff tear. Seventy-four MLB team orthopaedic surgeons were surveyed via an online survey system. A 14-question survey was used to assess surgeon experience, technique, and graft choice for UCL reconstruction (UCLR), treatment of type II SLAP tears, and other common pathologic conditions. Thirty team orthopaedic surgeons (41%) responded (mean experience as team physicians: 9.37 ± 6.33years). Seventeen (56.7%) surgeons use the docking technique for UCLR whereas 20% use the modified Jobe technique. Nineteen (63.3%) use palmaris longus autograft in UCLR. Overall, 28 (93.3%) do not routinely perform elbow arthroscopy or perform an obligatory transposition of the ulnar nerve in patients without preoperative ulnar nerve symptoms. Twenty-eight (93.3%) would repair a type II SLAP tear, whereas only 1 (3.3%) would debride the tear. No surgeon would perform a concomitant biceps tenodesis, either open or arthroscopic. Most MLB team orthopaedic surgeons perform a UCLR using the docking technique with a palmaris longus autograft without concomitant elbow arthroscopy or obligatory transposition of the ulnar nerve. The overwhelming majority of these surgeons would also treat an operative type II SLAP tear with a SLAP repair. The number of UCLRs and SLAP repairs performed on MLB pitchers has significantly increased over the past 10 years. To properly treat these conditions in elite, college, and recreational athletes, it is important to understand how the surgeons who take care of the most elite-level athletes treat them, and how they are able to reproducibly attain excellent outcomes. This study shows how these common shoulder and elbow injuries are treated by those surgeons who care for the most elite overhead-throwing athletes in the world.

Moneyball and Major League Teams Pay-Performance: A Case of Valuation Anomaly and Adaptive Market Efficiency?

An often discussed concept in accounting is the pay-performance relation, particularly with respect to executive compensation (known as pay-performance sensitivity, or PPS). This study explores the pay-performance relation in major league baseball teams, focusing on player payroll and its effects on teams’ performance. Moneyball (2003) exposed readers to the use of advanced analytics, or Sabermetrics, in baseball and how it improved the ‘bang for the buck’ in selecting baseball players and in managing games. It also offered the seductive idea that quantitative geeks could beat jocks in baseball personnel decisions. The study also contributes to the accounting literature on adaptive market efficiency and vanishing pricing anomalies by testing whether the use of Sabermetrics has indeed provided an unfair advantage to teams and general managers and, more importantly, whether the outing of these ideas has made the Moneyball effect go away.

Consumer Interest in Major League Baseball: An Analytical Modeling of Twitter

Understanding how consumers interact with sport brands on digital platforms is of increasing importance to the sport industry. In this study, through a nexus of consumer behavior and economic literatures, the examination focuses on consumer interest in major league baseball teams on social media platforms from July 2013 to June 2014. Specifically, two generalized least squares regression models were used that considered a variety of factors, including market characteristics, scheduling, and social media use and management. The findings display varying results of short- and long-term consumer interest in teams on Twitter. From this, important theoretical and practical understanding can be derived by considering consumer behavior in the automated “like economy” of social media.

Book Review: Crack of the Bat, by James R. Walker

James R. Walker Crack of the Bat. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2015. 305 pp.Walker's comprehensive history is of the often-times stormy relationship between the radio broadcast industry and Major League Baseball (MLB). Walker offers a detailed chronology of that history, beginning with the broadcast of a major league game on August 5, 1921, on KDKA, Pittsburgh. KDKA engineer Harold Arlin gave the first play-by-play commentary that afternoon during a Pirates-Phillies game. That broadcast ushered in the beginning of the marriage between baseball and broadcasting, a relationship that has been tumultuous throughout its history, but one that helped to shape both the sport and radio industry.Walker focuses on MLB team owners, the MLB commissioner's office, and the pioneers of radio, who negotiated how the sport would be distributed to a public eager for access to the national pastime. There were visionaries, such as the Chicago Cubs' owner William Wrigley and Cubs President Bill Veeck, who saw the advantages of broadcasting games. They viewed radio as a vital instrument for increasing interest in the team and for fueling game attendance. Other owners, however, saw radio (at least initially) as a threat to box office receipts. Yankees owner Jacob Ruppert and the team's Chief Executive Ed Barrow were among the majority of major league owners and representatives who shunned radio and took actions to keep broadcasters out of their ballparks. The Yankees formed a pact with the other New York teams (the Giants and Dodgers) to initiate a 5-year ban on radio broadcasts of games. World Series games, however, were different, and MLB Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis appointed himself chief negotiator in striking deals with sponsors, such as the Ford Motor Company and the Gillette Safety Razor Company, to be among the first to advertise via World Series broadcasts.As Walker explains, commercialization and sponsorships were major forces in the proliferation of baseball on the radio. Until night baseball became standard in the Major Leagues, sponsorships were limited to the audience that MLB daytime broadcasts were reaching: women and children. It is no wonder, then, that General Mills cereals were the major sponsors of MLB games on the radio. MLB and its broadcasters, however, desired another demographic, and that was men, ages 25 to 54. But day jobs kept many in that demographic from listening to MLB broadcasts and kept potential sponsors who targeted that demographic from supporting those broadcasts. Those sponsors included cigarette makers and breweries, and those sponsors grew as night baseball expanded in the late 1940s and 1950s. Although baseball broadcasts became increasingly commercialized, legal, social, and technological developments also affected the baseball-radio dyad. Baseball's anti-trust exemption, the Radio Act of 1927, the Communications Act of 1934, the Great Depression, digitization, and the web, all affected the ways in which radio delivered MLB. …