Major Groups Research Articles

Assessment of Factories on Adherence to COVID-19 Standard Operating Procedures: A Case Study of Wakiso, Mukono, Buikwe, and Jinja Districts, Uganda.

Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is an infectious disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Uganda confirmed the first case of COVID-19 on 21st March, 2020, which led to the first total lockdown in the country. During the lockdown, some factories remained operational; hence, there is a need for a study aimed at assessing the level of adherence to COVID-19 standard operating procedures (SOPs) in factories as a mitigator for the pandemic. A cross-sectional study to assess compliance of factories to COVID-19 SOPs was conducted in Wakiso, Mukono, Buikwe, and Jinja districts during the month of September, 2021. This involved visitation of factories and collection of data using the KoboCollect tool by interviewing general managers as well as human resource managers of the factories. A total of 39 factories were included in the study and were categorized into four major groups; food and beverages (15), plastics (5), construction (8), and others (11). Data analysis was done using STATA version 14.2. Overall adherence to COVID-19 SOPs by the factories was 64.1% (95% CI = 49.1-79.1). Communication and training of employees (79.5%; 95% CI = 66.8-92.2), wearing personal protective equipment (PPE), and respiratory protection (79.5%; 95% CI = 66.8-92.2) as well as enhanced cleaning and disinfection of surfaces (74.4%; 95% CI = 60.6-88.1) were the most implemented SOPs in the factories. Implementation of the SOPs was the highest in Mukono district (88.9%; 95% CI = 68.4-100) and the least in Wakiso district (40.0%; 95% CI = 9.6-70.4). The COVID-19 SOPs were followed mostly in construction material factories (87.5%; 95% CI = 64.6-100) and least in food and beverage factories (40%; 95% CI = 15.2-64.8). There was no significant difference in the adherence of COVID-19 SOPs among the districts (X2 = 5.02 and P=0.17) and factories (X2 = 7.04 and P=0.07). Although good overall adherence to SOPs noted was not dependent on location and type of factory, adherence to some SOPs such as exposure control plan, presence of signages on COVID-19, maintenance of social distance, and implementation of a health control plan varied with location of the district. Likewise, exposure control plan, signages on COVID-19, and maintenance of social distance varied significantly with the type of factory. This study revealed moderately good overall adherence to COVID-19 SOPs by factories, with variations in the level of implementation of individual SOPs being observed.

The Influence of Input Method and Chinese Character Complexity on the Elderly Using Smartphones to Input Information – A Study from China

The usage of smartphones holds paramount importance in enhancing the ability of elderly people to live independently. This research aims to explore the various scenarios in which Chinese elderly people employ smartphones for information input, and how input method and Chinese character complexity affect their information input process. To achieve this, we conducted semi-structured interviews to investigate typical situations where Chinese elderly individuals use smartphones to input information. Based on the survey results, we devised an experiment to assess the impact of the input method and Chinese character complexity on the elderly’s objective physical load, mental load, input performance, and subjective experience during the inputting process. The findings revealed that the choice of input method significantly affects the objective physical load. Distinct input method engaged different major muscle groups during the process. As the Chinese character complexity increased, the elderly’s input performance declined, with handwriting input being particularly affected. Thus, we proposed enhancing the current handwriting interface by allowing users to input complex Chinese characters through handwritten pinyin, and simplify the start steps of the handwriting function based on the pinyin input interface. This study contributes to the development of evidence-based guidelines for the aging design of smart mobile devices, thus enhancing the elderly’s overall experience in using such technology.

Pedal towards Safety: The Development and Evaluation of a Risk Index for Cyclists

Cyclists are at a higher risk of being involved in accidents. To this end, a safer environment for cyclists should be pursued so that they can feel safe while riding their bicycles. Focusing on safety risks that cyclists may face is the main key to preserving safe mobility, reducing accidents, and improving their level of safety during their travel. Identifying and assessing risk factors, as well as informing cyclists about them may lead to an efficient and integrated transportation system. Therefore, the purpose of this research is to introduce a risk index that can be adapted to different road areas in order to measure the degree of how risky these areas are for biking. Cyclists’ behavior and demographics were integrated into the risk index calculation. The methodology followed to obtain the risk index composed of four phases: risk factor identification, risk factor weighting, risk index formulation, and risk index validation. Nineteen risk factors are categorized into four major groups: facility features, infrastructure features, cyclist behavior, and weather and traffic conditions.

Teachers’ Attitude Resources in Translation Teaching from the Perspective of Appraisal Theory

Teacher discourse was rich in attitude resources and were able to facilitate the process of teacher-student interaction. This study is to determine the teachers’ attitude resources in translation teaching from the perspective of appraisal theory by conducting observations of the 16 winners of the 12th SFLEP (Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press) National Foreign Language Teaching Contest (Translation Major Group), transcribing their teaching videos into a written text corpus, and then exploring how these teachers use teacher discourse to organize and implement instruction, with an aim to reveal some implications for translation teaching.

Violent Conflict and Hostility Towards Ethnoreligious Outgroups in Nigeria

ABSTRACT This study examined the effect of exposure to violent conflict on hostility towards ethnic and religious outgroups among Nigeria’s population and among its two major religious groups (i.e., Christians and Muslims). Violent conflict had a robust positive effect on outgroup hostility among the Nigerian population and among Christians. A plausible mechanism behind this finding is that the threat posed by violent conflict strengthens ingroup cohesion, erodes trust in outgroup members, and makes intergroup boundaries salient. This is especially so when the opposite party to the conflict constitutes a distinct cultural outgroup. The main conflict affecting Christians involves nomadic pastoralists of Fulani ethnicity, who are Muslims. Among Muslims, violent conflict rather had a weak positive effect on outgroup hostility that was not robust to alternative operationalizations of outgroup hostility. The null effect might be because the main conflict affecting Muslims—the Boko Haram insurgency—does not involve Christians. A significant number of Muslims are also affected by conflicts involving nomadic Fulani pastoralists.

Features of interaction between participants and the court in considering cases using web conferencing in Arbitration Courts

This article is dedicated to exploring the intricacies of interaction between participants of legal proceedings and the court within the context of case hearings utilizing web conferencing in Arbitration Courts. The analysis delves into both the positive and negative aspects of the online format in legal procedures and provides recommendations for optimal preparation for virtual sessions and adherence to etiquette within this framework.The article scrutinizes two major groups of issues; the first pertains to filing requests for participation in court sessions through online conferencing services and communication with the court at this stage, while the second deals with direct involvement in court sessions and the nuances of interacting with the court “through the screen”.The research demonstrates that the employment of web conferencing in Arbitration Courts brings several advantages, such as time and resource efficiency. However, it also presents its own drawbacks, associated with technical problems and limited communication possibilities.

First Report of Phenotype Prevalence of Five Major Rh Blood Group Antigens in the Blood Donor Population of Peshawar, Pakistan

Objective: The current study investigated the prevalence of five major Rh blood group antigens in the Peshawar region of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan.
 Methodology: This was a cross-sectional study, conducted at the Peshawar Regional Blood Centre from February to April 2023. A total of 13,148 blood donor samples were analyzed for Rh D, C, c, E, and e antigens using monoclonal reagents. The frequencies were calculated by direct counting on a spreadsheet programme and the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS for Windows version 25.0. Armonk, NY, USA) was used to conduct a meta-analysis for comparison of results with national and international studies.
 Results: The findings of the current study revealed that 92.17% of donors were RhD positive. The e antigen showed the highest frequency of 98.31%, followed by D antigen and the C antigen (92.17% and 78.37%, respectively). Comparative analyses with earlier Pakistani studies and international data indicated significant variations in antigen frequencies, potentially attributed to the diverse ethnic population and geography of the region.
 Conclusion: The findings emphasize the importance of local antigen frequency data for efficient blood transfusion strategies, especially for thalassaemia patients requiring frequent transfusions.
 Key words: Rhesus, Blood Group, Phenotype

Dominance of non-wetland-dependent pollinators in a plant community in a small natural wetland in Shimane, Japan.

Many wetland plants rely on insects for pollination. However, studies examining pollinator communities in wetlands remain limited. Some studies conducted in large wetlands (> 10ha) have suggested that wetland-dependent flies, which spend their larval stage in aquatic and semi-aquatic habitats, dominate as pollinators. However, smaller wetlands surrounded by secondary forests are more prevalent in Japan, in which pollinators from the surrounding environment might be important. Additionally, information regarding floral traits that attract specific pollinator groups in wetland communities is scarce. Therefore, this study aimed to understand the characteristics of insect pollinators in a small natural wetland (2.5ha) in Japan. We examined the major pollinator groups visiting 34 plant species and explored the relationship between the flower visitation frequency of each pollinator group and floral traits. Overall, flies were the most dominant pollinators (42%), followed by bees and wasps (33%). Cluster analysis indicated that fly-dominated plants were the most abundant among 14 of the 34 target plant species. However, 85% of the hoverflies, the most abundant flies, and 82% of the bees were non-wetland-dependent species, suggesting that these terrestrial species likely originated from the surrounding environment. Therefore, pollinators from the surrounding environment would be important in small natural wetlands. Flies tend to visit open and white/yellow flowers, whereas bees tended to visit tube-shaped flowers, as in forest and grassland ecosystems. The dominance of flies in small wetlands would be due to the dominance of flowers preferred by flies (e.g., yellow/white flowers) rather than because of their larval habitats.

Cadmium accumulation in organisms from a spruce plantation amended with wood ash - an environmental risk?

Recycling of wood ash from power plants to forest plantations returns plant nutrients lost at harvest. However, wood ash contains a considerable amount of cadmium (Cd) that may accumulate in the forest food web, and eventually threaten environment and human health. We examined the short-term (6–24 months) uptake of Cd in a range of organisms from different trophic levels in the forest food web. We amended twelve field plots in a Norway spruce plantation with wood ash in different concentrations (0, 3, 4.5 and 6 t ha−1), and subsequently measured Cd concentration in three vascular plant species, three metazoan groups, a lichen, and fruiting bodies of four ectomycorrhizal fungal species. Cd content varied significantly between the major taxonomic groups; metazoans contained most and vascular plants least, but also within the groups, most pronouncedly for ectomycorrhizal basidiomycetes. In vascular plants, metazoans as well as fungi, we found some examples that Cd content correlated significantly with wood ash amendment, however most organisms were unaffected, and no group of organisms contained more Cd than allowed for comparable food items. We therefore conclude that with the wood ash dosages used here, the environmental risk of Cd accumulation is slight, at least in the forest system that we examined.

Preparation of Bio-Based Polyurethane Coating from Citrullus colocynthis Seed Oil: Characterization and Corrosion Performance.

In this study, a new epoxidized oil from Citrullus colocynthis seed oil (CCSO) was obtained for a potential application in the formulation of polyurethane coatings. Initially, the fatty acid composition of CCSO was determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Subsequently, the epoxidation of CCSO was performed with in situ generated peracetic acid, which was formed with hydrogen peroxide (30 wt.%) and glacial acetic acid and catalyzed with sulfuric acid. The reaction was continued at a molar ratio of 1.50:1.0 of hydrogen peroxide to double bond (H2O2:DB) for 6 h at a controlled temperature of 60 °C. The resulting epoxidized oil was then used to produce a bio-based polyol by hydroxylation. The molar ratio of epoxy groups to methanol and distilled water was maintained at 1:11:2, and the reaction was carried out for 2 h at a controlled temperature of 65 °C. The major functional groups of the epoxidized oil and its polyol were validated by Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) and proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR) spectroscopies. A polyurethane (PU) coating was produced from the synthesized polyol and 3HDI isocyanurate, keeping the molar ratio of NCO:OH at 1:1. The resulting PU coating was then applied to glass and aluminum panels (Al 1001). After the film was cured, the properties of the PU coating were evaluated using various techniques including pencil hardness, pendulum hardness, adhesion, gloss, chemical resistance, and EIS tests. The results show that the PU coating obtained from CCSO is a promising new raw material for coating applications.

Effects of agricultural landscape heterogeneity on pollinator visitation rates in Mediterranean oilseed rape

Agricultural intensification, by changing land use and modifying the yearly configuration and composition through crop sequences, affects the abundance and diversity of pollinators and, consequently, pollination. This study aims to assess the impact of the characteristics of agricultural landscapes on pollinator abundance in the Mediterranean region. We studied the response of three major wild pollinator groups (hoverflies, bumblebees, and wild bees) to four landscape characteristics: three related to composition, namely, equivalent crop diversity in the sampling year (eRg), previous year equivalent crop diversity (eRgP) and percentage of seminatural habitats (SNH), and one related to landscape configuration, namely, mean field size (MFS). For this evaluation, we selected twenty-two oilseed rape fields (OSRs) differing in surrounding landscape characteristics within a 1-km radius. Multimodel inference indicates that landscape variables affect pollinator groups differently. The percentage of SNH was the most important variable having a positive influence on the abundance of bumblebees, while eRgP and MFS were found to be important for the abundance of wild bees and hoverflies. These data allow us to prioritize actions aimed at specific groups of pollinators, improve agricultural landscape schemes, promote the conservation of wild pollinators, promote crop diversity at the landscape scale and increase the extent of seminatural areas.

Molecular study of the KCNJ11 gene and its correlation with Prakriti to preventing and managing type 2 diabetes

In Ayurveda, every individual is believed to possess a unique entity known as Prakriti, which distinguishes them from others physically, physiologically, and psychologically. This entity also determines an individual's response to a particular stimulus, and it is believed that such responses are not solely determined by genetics. The present research aims to validate the Ayurvedic concept of Prakriti from a modern molecular perspective to strengthen the personalized and precise treatment approach. A study was conducted to investigate the role of the KCNJ11gene in the susceptibility of individuals to type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) with their metabolic status. The research involved allele mining on three major Prakriti groups - Vata, Pitta, and Kapha - in 112 patients with T2DM and 112 healthy individuals. The KCNJ11 gene, responsible for insulin secretion membrane pore formation, was analyzed to determine the susceptibility of different Prakriti types to T2DM. The MutPred tool predicted the molecular cause of disease-related amino acid substitution. According to the study, only Pitta and Kapha Prakriti were diagnosed with diabetes, while all three Prakriti types were present in the control group of healthy individuals. A protein model was prepared, and the changes resulting from mutations were observed for each group in their protein sequence, both as synonymous and non-synonymous mutations. Ultimately, these changes contributed to the manifestation of T2DM. Based on the findings, it appears that Prakriti groups may experience changes in protein function due to nonsynonymous mutations and differences in amino acids at the protein level.

Celebrando Herencia: A Latino Educator’s Reflection on a Science Museum’s “Hispanic & Latinx Heritage Month Celebration Day”

ABSTRACT Promoting science education to all continues to be a key focus for many individuals and organizations. Informal science education settings such as museums have been shown to have a positive influence on student attitudes and interests toward science. Unfortunately, many underrepresented groups do not frequent museums as frequently as other majority groups. Hispanic and Latino-identifying individuals are an example of a group of interest, as their national population growth is not reflected in museum visitor statistics. This paper explores how the Museum of Science in Boston, Massachusetts attempts to engage the Latino community through a Hispanic Heritage Month event. This is explored through the lens of the author, after attending the event. These reflections will capture a “lived experience” that can potentially be used as consideration when planning future events that target the Latino community.

Why college majors and selectivity matter: Major groupings, occupation specificity, and job skills

AbstractWe provide new approaches to examining the returns to college majors and institutional selectivity. Using unique resume data, we devise new groupings of majors and use these to construct five measures that characterize majors. Applying these measures to the National Survey of College Graduates, we find that majors that lead to jobs that are math‐intensive or writing‐intensive have higher earnings and also a higher return to selectivity. Majors that are occupationally specific also have higher earnings but have a lower return to institutional selectivity. We find that the value of selectivity relative to major increases as selectivity rises.

Effective deep learning based grade prediction system using gated recurrent unit (GRU) with feature optimization using analysis of variance (ANOVA)

The prediction of final semester grades is a crucial undertaking in education, offering insights into student performance and enabling timely interventions to support their academic journey. This paper employs a deep learning approach, specifically gated recurrent unit (GRU), in conjunction with feature optimization using analysis of variance (ANOVA), to forecast final semester grades. The predictive model is trained and evaluated on a handcrafted grade prediction dataset, which contains the academic performance of the students during Plus 2 and from Semester 1 to Semester 4 of a group of Computer science and Engineering majors in Kerala. By processing historical academic records and contextual information, the GRU model learns to predict future performance accurately. To enhance the model's efficacy and interpretability, ANOVA is applied to optimize the feature selection process. This statistical technique identifies the most influential factors contributing to final grades, refining the model's predictive power while reducing dimensionality. The experimental results showcase the model's effectiveness in predicting final semester grades, demonstrating superior accuracy and performance compared to grade prediction using CNN with Bayesian optimization and LSTM with L1-Norm optimization.

Evolution of the temporal skull openings in land vertebrates: A hypothetical framework on the basis of biomechanics.

The complex constructions of land vertebrate skulls have inspired a number of functional analyses. In the present study, we provide a basic view on skull biomechanics and offer a framework for more general observations using advanced modeling approaches in the future. We concentrate our discussion on the cranial openings in the temporal skull region and work out two major, feeding-related factors that largely influence the shape of the skull. We argue that (1) the place where the most forceful biting is conducted and (2) the handling of resisting food (sideward movements) constitute the formation and shaping of either one or two temporal arcades surrounding these openings. Diversity in temporal skull anatomy among amniotes can be explained by specific modulations of these factors with different amounts of acting forces which inevitably lead to deposition or reduction of bone material. For example, forceful anterior bite favors an infratemporal bar, whereas forceful posterior bite favors formation of an upper temporal arcade. Transverse forces (inertia and resistance of seized objects) as well as neck posture also influence the shaping of the temporal region. Considering their individual skull morphotypes, we finally provide hypotheses on the feeding adaptation in a variety of major tetrapod groups. We did not consider ligaments, internal bone structure, or cranial kinesis in our considerations. Involving those in quantitative tests of our hypotheses, such as finite element system synthesis, will provide a comprehensive picture on cranial mechanics and evolution in the future.

Aquatic Insects as Bioindicators of Water Quality in the Achenkovil River, Kerala, India.

The origin of the Achenkovil River, the Devarmalai of Western Ghats, is within the Konni reserve forest of Pathanamthitta district, flowing through Pathanamthitta, Kollam, and merging with the Pamba river in the Alappuzha district. This study included the spatial variation of aquatic insect fauna with respect to water quality. The bottom water samples and insect fauna were collected bimonthly using a Niskin sampler and D-frame nets for a period of one year (February 2019 to January 2020). The study yielded 10736 insect fauna under 8 orders, 21 families, 35 genera, and 36 species. How the quality of the water affects biodiversity of aquatic insects was examined using multivariate statistical techniques (PCA and CCA) and Pearson's correlation coefficient. The findings showed that the upstream portion of the river has a remarkable diversity and quantity of aquatic insect species. The major insect group in the collected sample was ephemeroptera. There were no pollution-sensitive taxa in the middle stream or downstream portions of the river, which suggests that the water quality was declining. The middle stream and downstream sections of the river did not contain any pollution-sensitive taxa, indicating deteriorating water quality. Human-caused factors like washing, cleaning cars, and washing cattle and disposal of garbage are common in these regions. Because most aquatic insects are sensitive to environmental fluctuations, they can be used as an efficient tool in biomonitoring studies.

Globin phylogeny, evolution and function, the newest update.

Our globin census update allows us to refine our vision of globin origin, evolution, and structure to function relationship in the context of the currently accepted tree of life. The modern globin domain originates as a single domain, three-over-three α-helical folded structure before the diversification of the kingdoms of life (Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya). Together with the diversification of prokaryotes, three monophyletic globin families (M, S, and T) emerged, most likely in Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria, displaying specific sequence and structural features, and spread by vertical and horizontal gene transfer, most probably already present in the last universal common ancestor (LUCA). Non-globin domains were added, and eventually lost again, creating multi-domain structures in key branches of M- (FHb and Adgb) and the vast majority of S globins, which with their coevolved multi-domain architectures, have predominantly "sensor" functions. Single domain T-family globins diverged into four major groups and most likely display functions related to reactive nitrogen and oxygen species (RNOS) chemistry, as well as oxygen storage/transport which drives the evolution of its major branches with their characteristic key distal residues (B10, E11, E7, and G8). M-family evolution also lead to distinctive major types (FHb and Fgb, Ngb, Adgb, GbX vertebrate Gbs), and shows the shift from high oxygen affinity controlled by TyrB10-Gln/AsnE11 likely related to RNOS chemistry in microorganisms, to a moderate oxygen affinity storage/transport function controlled by hydrophobic B10/E11-HisE7 in multicellular animals.

In silico analysis of crustacean hyperglycemic hormone family G protein-coupled receptor candidates.

Ecdysteroid molting hormone synthesis is directed by a pair of molting glands or Y-organs (YOs), and this synthesis is inhibited by molt-inhibiting hormone (MIH). MIH is a member of the crustacean hyperglycemic hormone (CHH) neuropeptide superfamily, which includes CHH and insect ion transport peptide (ITP). It is hypothesized that the MIH receptor is a Class A (Rhodopsin-like) G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR). The YO of the blackback land crab, Gecarcinus lateralis, expresses 49 Class A GPCRs, three of which (Gl-CHHR-A9, -A10, and -A12) were provisionally assigned as CHH-like receptors. CrusTome, a transcriptome database assembled from 189 crustaceans and 12 ecdysozoan outgroups, was used to deorphanize candidate MIH/CHH GPCRs, relying on sequence homology to three functionally characterized ITP receptors (BNGR-A2, BNGR-A24, and BNGR-A34) in the silk moth, Bombyx mori. Phylogenetic analysis and multiple sequence alignments across major taxonomic groups revealed extensive expansion and diversification of crustacean A2, A24, and A34 receptors, designated CHH Family Receptor Candidates (CFRCs). The A2 clade was divided into three subclades; A24 clade was divided into five subclades; and A34 was divided into six subclades. The subclades were distinguished by conserved motifs in extracellular loop (ECL) 2 and ECL3 in the ligand-binding region. Eleven of the 14 subclades occurred in decapod crustaceans. In G. lateralis, seven CFRC sequences, designated Gl-CFRC-A2α1, -A24α, -A24β1, -A24β2, -A34α2, -A34β1, and -A34β2, were identified; the three A34 sequences corresponded to Gl-GPCR-A12, -A9, and A10, respectively. ECL2 in all the CFRC sequences had a two-stranded β-sheet structure similar to human Class A GPCRs, whereas the ECL2 of decapod CFRC-A34β1/β2 had an additional two-stranded β-sheet. We hypothesize that this second β-sheet on ECL2 plays a role in MIH/CHH binding and activation, which will be investigated further with functional assays.

Plant-insect interactions across the Triassic–Jurassic boundary in the Sichuan Basin, South China

Plants and insects are the most diverse and ecologically important organisms in the terrestrial biosphere. Their interactions are also among the richest biotic relationships, and offer significant insights into the evolution of terrestrial ecosystem complexity through the geological record. This investigation of the late Rhaetian Xujiahe and the earliest Jurassic Zhenzhuchong floral assemblages provides the first data on foliar herbivory generated by terrestrial arthropods across the Triassic–Jurassic transition in the eastern Tethys (East Asia) region. The damage types from two fossil assemblages are collectively attributed to seven functional feeding and egg-laying categories (i.e., hole feeding, margin feeding, surface feeding, skeletonization, piercing and sucking, oviposition, and galling). Most feeding strategies are spread across the major plant groups and persist through the Triassic–Jurassic boundary, with the exception of skeletonization (a category of external foliage feeding), which was restricted to the latest Triassic within dipteridacean ferns. The survey reveals that the respective frequency and diversity of interactions between plants and insects prior to and following the end-Triassic mass extinction event are almost the same, despite a substantial turnover of floral components. This suggest that insect herbivores were largely able to transfer to alternative (but commonly related) plant groups during the dramatic floristic turnover and environmental changes at the end of the Triassic. Sporadic occurrences of foliar modifications, such as marginal cusps on pinnules of Pterophyllum and prominent ridges on the rachises of some ferns and bennettites are interpreted as adaptations for defense against insect herbivores. A few differences in taxonomic composition and herbivory representation between the latest Triassic Xujiahe flora and the earliest Jurassic Zhenzhuchong flora are more likely to be related to collection and preservational biases rather than reflecting palaeoecological changes. We encourage further investigations exploring the distribution of insect damage in fossil floras from other palaeolatitudinal zones and spanning other major extinction events to develop a better understanding of terrestrial ecosystem responses to major crises in Earth’s history.