Major Cause Of Depression Research Articles

RESILIENCE AS A PROTECTIVE FACTOR FOR DEPRESSION AMONG INFERTILE WOMEN OF FAISALABAD

Background: Infertility is one the major cause of depression among married women of Pakistan. Resilience is a psychological skill that can help to manage depression in married women. This study was designed to assess depression and resilience among infertile women of Faisalabad. Methods: A correlational study was conducted from May to Aug 2022. Purposive sampling technique was used to gather information from different infertility centers and hospitals of Faisalabad, Pakistan. The Mean age of the subjects was 31.38±5.57 years. To assess the level of depression and resilience among infertile women, the Urdu version of the Siddiqui-Shah Depression Scale (SSDS) and the Resilience Scale (RS) were used. Statistical analysis was done on SPSS-26. Results: Out of the 110 participants, 89 (81%) were primary while 21 (20%) were secondary infertile. Resilience and depression negatively correlated significantly (p=0.000) in infertile women. The respondents from rural areas (p<0.05), those with increased number of treatments (p<0.05) and those having primary type of infertility (p<0.05) showed significantly high level of depression. Conclusion: Resilience and depression have negative association. Depression is predominant among rural as compared to urban residents, and in primary infertile women with increased number of treatments compared to secondary infertile women. Pak J Physiol 2023;19(4):46–8

Stress-Activated Protein Kinase JNK Modulates Depression-like Behaviors in Mice.

Stress is considered as a major cause of depression. C-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) is a member of the stress-induced mitogen activated protein (MAP) kinase family which is often activated through phosphorylation. Clinical studies and animal experiments have found that abnormal phosphorylation/activation of JNK exists in the occurrence of various psychiatric diseases. Recently, several studies linked JNK kinase activity to depression. However, whether excessive activation of JNK activity is directly responsible for the occurrence of depression and the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Here, we constructed a conditional transgenic mouse which is specifically expressing MKK7-JNK1 (CAJNK1) in the central nervous system. CAJNK1 mice showed activation of JNK and lead to depression-like behavior in mice. Transcriptome analysis indicates reduced expression of synaptic-associated genes in CAJNK1 mice brains. Consistently, we found abnormal dendritic spine development and PSD95 downregulation in CAJNK1 hippocampal neurons. Our studies provide compelling evidence that activation of JNK as an intrinsic factor leading to depression-like behavior in mice provides direct clues for targeting the JNK activity as a potential therapeutic strategy for depression.

Environmental changes and mental distress in rural communities.

In Japan, non-farmers and people living in urban areas have not been greatly affected by environmental changes. In contrast, primary producers living in rural areas increasingly suffering from declining crop yields and drastically reduced catches of wild animals and seafood because of recent environmental changes. Studies, mainly from overseas, have reported that farming is an especially stressful occupation associated with high rates of depression and suicide, and the relationship between climate change and depression, as well as between climate change and suicide, is almost certain in rural communities. Particularly striking examples include the impact on the mental health of farmers in rural Australia and the Inuit in the Canadian Arctic, who are losing their livelihoods because of ecological collapse; this mental distress is known as "ecological grief". Such mental distress may be a major cause of depression and suicide among people in rural areas and Japan is no exception. I hoped that the concept of mental distress due to environmental changes will be recognized in Japan, leading to more eco-friendly attitudes that can promote the health of people living in rural areas and protect the surrounding ecosystem.

Determinants of peripheral artery disease among persons with diabetes mellitus in north central Nigeria

Peripheral artery disease (PAD) is one of the leading causes of non-traumatic amputation worldwide and a major cause of depression. It is therefore imperative to identify the determinants of PAD so as to adopt strategies for its early prevention. The aim of this study therefore, is to assess the determinants of PAD among persons with diabetes mellitus (DM). This is a cross-sectional study aimed at identifying the determinants of PAD among persons with DM. One thousand and forty (1,040) participants were consecutively recruited following consent from participants and waiver of ethical approval. Relevant medical history, anthropometric measurements, other clinical examinations including measurement of ankle-brachial index (ABI), and were undertaken. IBM SPSS version 23 was used for statistical analysis and logistic regression was used to assess for the determinants of PAD. Significance level used was p < 0.05. Following logistic regression analysis, significant determinants of PAD included age with odds ratio (OR) 1.51, Confidence Interval (CI) 1.18-2.34, p=0.033; duration of DM (OR 1.51, CI 1.23-1.85, p<0.001); positive neuropathic symptoms (OR 2.94, CI 1.94-9.23, p=0.045); central obesity (OR 9.77, CI 5.07-18.82, p<0.001); poor SBP control (OR 2.47, CI 1.26-4.87, p=0.016); poor DBP control (OR 2.45, CI 1.24-4.84, p=0.010); poor HbA1c control (OR 2.59, CI 1.50-5.71, p<0.001); and poor 2HrPP control (OR 3.43, CI 1.79-6.56, p<0.001). Significant inverse determinants of PAD included pulse pressure (OR 0.78, CI 0.67-0.99, p<0.001), statins (OR 3.01, CI 1.99-9.19, p=0.023), and antiplatelets (OR 7.14, CI 3.03-15.61, p=0.008). Significant determinants of PAD included age, duration of DM, positive neuropathic symptoms, central obesity, and poor control of, DBP, and 2HrP. Pulse pressure was however, found to be a significant inverse determinant of PAD which means that low pulse pressure may predispose to PAD. Finally, antiplatelets and statins use were significant inverse determinants of PAD, i.e., they may be protective against PAD. It is recommended therefore, that patients be placed on antiplatelets and statins as early as possible, and in line with extant guidelines.

Epigenetic Mechanism of Early Life Stress-Induced Depression: Focus on the Neurotransmitter Systems.

Depression has an alarmingly high prevalence worldwide. A growing body of evidence indicates that environmental factors significantly affect the neural development and function of the central nervous system and then induce psychiatric disorders. Early life stress (ELS) affects brain development and has been identified as a major cause of depression. It could promote susceptibility to stress in adulthood. Recent studies have found that ELS induces epigenetic changes that subsequently affect transcriptional rates of differentially expressed genes. The epigenetic modifications involved in ELS include histone modifications, DNA methylation, and non-coding RNA. Understanding of these genetic modifications may identify mechanisms that may lead to new interventions for the treatment of depression. Many reports indicate that different types of ELS induce epigenetic modifications of genes involved in the neurotransmitter systems, such as the dopaminergic system, the serotonergic system, the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-ergic system, and the glutamatergic system, which further regulate gene expression and ultimately induce depression-like behaviors. In this article, we review the effects of epigenetic modifications on the neurotransmitter systems in depression-like outcomes produced by different types of ELS in recent years, aiming to provide new therapeutic targets for patients who suffer from depression.

A Synbiotic Mixture Ameliorates Depressive Behavior Induced by Dexamethasone or Water Avoidance Stress in a Mouse Model.

Disruption of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis by stress and glucocorticoid drugs is a major cause of depression. The benefits of probiotics may extend to systems beyond the gastrointestinal tract, i.e., the central nervous system. Therefore, the effect of a synbiotic (probiotic + prebiotic) mixture on dexamethasone (Dex) and stress-induced depression was investigated. Male albino mice were used, the forced swimming test (FST) measured despair, and the sucrose preference test measured anhedonia. The synbiotic regimen (12.5x106 CFU) was supplemented in drinking water for 7 days. Dex was administered subcutaneously either in a single dose on the test day or for 7 days. Water avoidance stress (WAS) was induced for 1 hour each day for 4 days. Drinking the synbiotic reduced immobility time during the FST (54±7 sec vs. 111±6 sec in the control water group, p<0.001). Dex injection significantly increased the immobility time (single dose: 166±6 sec and 7 days: 174±9 sec) compared with the control groups, while adding the synbiotic to their drinking water reduced it (single dose: 81±6.6 sec, and 7 days: 84±14 sec), indicating that the synbiotic reversed Dex-induced depression. WAS increased the immobility time (148±11 sec vs. sham 99±6 sec, p<0.001) in the FST test. When the synbiotic treatment was added following WAS, the immobility time decreased (81±6.5 sec). The synbiotic groups also had a higher sucrose preference percentage. The synbiotic mixture prevented the effects of WAS, acute or sub-acute Dex-induced depression in mice. Therefore, probiotics might be useful and safe supplements to prevent depression related to stress or glucocorticoid therapies, a phenomenon that deserves further evaluation.

Specific Fluorescent Probe Based on “Protect–Deprotect” To Visualize the Norepinephrine Signaling Pathway and Drug Intervention Tracers

In recent years, increased social pressure and other factors have led to a surge in the number of people suffering from depression: studies show that quite a few people will experience major depression in their lifetime. Currently, it is widely believed that the internal cause of major depression is reduced levels of norepinephrine (NE) in brain tissue. Norepinephrine is very similar in structure and chemical properties to the other two catecholamine neurotransmitters, epinephrine (EP) and dopamine (DA). These three neurotransmitters are synthesized sequentially through enzymatic reactions in the biological system. Therefore, design of a norepinephrine-specific fluorescent probe is very challenging. In this work, we utilized a "protect-deprotect" strategy: longer emission wavelength cyanine containing water-soluble sulfonate was protected by a carbonic ester linking departing group thiophenol; the β-hydroxy ethyl amine moiety of norepinephrine may react with the carbonic ester via nucleophilic substitution and intramolecular nucleophilic cyclization to release the fluorophore. The process realized the specific red fluorescence detection of norepinephrine. Imaging of the norepinephrine nerve signal transduction stimulated by potassium ion was studied. More importantly, real-time fluorescence imaging of norepinephrine levels in the brain of rats stimulated by antidepressant drugs was studied for the first time.

Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Up-Regulation by the Methanol Extract of Foxtail Millet in Human Peripheral Cells.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) plays important roles in synaptic plasticity and neuronal differentiation. The neurotrophic hypothesis of depression, which suggests that reduced BDNF in the hippocampus underlies depression, has attracted increasing attention. Stress, a major cause of depression, leads to decreased BDNF levels, and administration of BDNF into the hippocampus shows an antidepressant effect. BDNF is synthesized in peripheral tissues as well as in the brain. Since BDNF crosses the blood-brain barrier, intake of food ingredients that elevate BDNF in peripheral tissues may be useful for the prevention and treatment of depression. However, no screening method for BDNF up-regulators in peripheral tissues has been reported. In this study, we revealed that ACHN human kidney adenocarcinoma cells secreted BDNF. In addition, we demonstrated that the methanol extract of foxtail millet up-regulated BDNF levels in ACHN cells. Our results indicate that ACHN cells could be useful in the screening for peripheral-BDNF up-regulators, and that foxtail millet may have the potential to elevate BDNF levels in peripheral tissues.

Self-Acceptance of Young Prisoners in the Institute for Special Education for Children (LPKA)

Adolescent inmates are a population that is vulnerable to depression because being a prisoner is a hard life for adolescents. All the pressure in prison will be a major cause of depression for juvenile prisoners while in detention. In addition, feelings of fear caused by public perceptions of free teenage inmates will make prisoners increasingly feel isolated. Therefore, to reduce these impacts, self-acceptance is needed. The purpose of this study is to describe the aspects of self-acceptance that exist in adolescent prisoners in prison. Samples were collected form 46 prisoners adolescents by applying the purposive sampling technique. The instruments used were self-acceptance questionnaires which has a reliability score of 0.934 (Alpha Cronbach).Data analysis used aquantitative approach with descriptive methods. The results of self-acceptance juvenile inmates obtained an average score of 155.93 (hight self-acceptance category) with an average percentage category of 70.88%.

A synbiotic mixture ameliorated depressive behavior induced by dexamethasone or water avoidance stress in mice model

Objectives Disruption of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis by stress and glucocorticoid drugs is a major cause of depression. The benefits of probiotics may extend to systems beyond the gastrointestinal tract, i.e., the central nervous system. Therefore, the effect of a synbiotic (probiotic + prebiotic) mixture on dexamethasone (Dex) and stress-induced depression was investigated. Materials and Methods Male albino mice were used, the forced swimming test (FST) measured despair, and the sucrose preference test measured anhedonia. The synbiotic regimen (12.5x106 CFU) was supplemented in drinking water for 7 days. Dex was administered subcutaneously either in a single dose on the test day or for 7 days. Water avoidance stress (WAS) was induced for 1 hour each day for 4 days. Results Drinking the synbiotic reduced immobility time during the FST (54±7 sec vs. 111±6 sec in the control water group, p<0.001). Dex injection significantly increased the immobility time (single dose: 166±6 sec and 7 days: 174±9 sec) compared with the control groups, while adding the synbiotic to their drinking water reduced it (single dose: 81±6.6 sec, and 7 days: 84±14 sec), indicating that the synbiotic reversed Dex-induced depression. WAS increased the immobility time (148±11 sec vs. sham 99±6 sec, p<0.001) in the FST test. When the synbiotic treatment was added following WAS, the immobility time decreased (81±6.5 sec). The synbiotic groups also had a higher sucrose preference percentage. Conclusion The synbiotic mixture prevented the effects of WAS, acute or sub-acute Dex-induced depression in mice. Therefore, probiotics might be useful and safe supplements to prevent depression related to stress or glucocorticoid therapies, a phenomenon that deserves further evaluation.

The association of quality of life between anxiety and depression in patients with chronic rheumatic heart disease

Objective: The main objective of the study was to measure the association of quality of life between anxiety and depression in patients with chronic rheumatic heart disease. Methodology: Psychometric assessment (anxiety and depression) of the subjects was measured using HADS. Clinical data were collected from the Department of Cardiology OPD of Safdarjung Hospital, New Delhi. A total of 500 RHD patients and 100 healthy controls were included in the study based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. Data analysis was performed with Chi square test and ANOVA using IBM SPSS version 22. Findings: Almost 80% of the subjects were suffering from moderate RHD, and 20% were suffering from Severe RHD. Most cases of RHD were suffering from moderate anxiety and depression levels. Among all the variables of SF-36 questionnaire, only pain was only variable associated with anxiety. None of the SF-36 variables was associated with depression in patients with RHD. Conclusion: It was seen that high levels of anxiety and depression levels are present in patients with RHD. It was also observed that the high anxiety levels in the RHD patients can also be a major cause of depression in patients. The factors related to the disease like physical pain, social functioning, and general health causes high anxiety and depression in the patients when the disease prevails over a long time.

Negative cognitive style interacts with negative life events to predict first onset of a major depressive episode in adolescence via hopelessness.

The hopelessness theory of depression is a prominent account of depression that posits that individuals with a negative inferential style are more likely to become hopeless when they experience negative life events (NLEs) and that hopelessness is a proximal cause of depression. There is strong evidence supporting the role of a negative inferential style in the pathogenesis of major depression; however, substantially less is known about the proposed role played by hopelessness. The cornerstone hypothesis of hopelessness theory, that hopelessness is a proximal cause of major depression, is largely untested. A small number of studies have generated inconclusive evidence that hopelessness mediates the relationship between a negative inferential style, NLEs, and depressive symptoms. The current study tested whether hopelessness mediates the relationship between a Negative Inferential Style × NLEs interaction and (a) 1st onset of a major depressive episode (MDE) and (b) depressive symptoms in a fully prospective design. A diverse sample of 249 adolescents, ages 12-13 years, were assessed at baseline and at 2 or more follow-ups over approximately 2.5 years. Self-report as well as life event and diagnostic interviews assessed inferential style, NLEs, hopelessness, depressive symptoms, and depression diagnosis. Moderated mediation analyses indicated that hopelessness mediated the relationship between a Negative Inferential Style × NLEs interaction and (a) 1st onset of an MDE as well as (b) depressive symptoms at higher levels of multiple types of NLEs. The current study demonstrates the validity of the hopelessness theory of depression and its continued clinical relevance in predicting depression in adolescence. (PsycINFO Database Record

Comparison of Depression among freshmen and Last Year College Students

Background: Going off to college is a unique point in time for young adults. It forces independence from a developed comfort zone that folks may have had through the end of high school, and at the same time drives home the point that there is no one around to clean up one’s mistakes anymore. The purpose of this study was to measure the depression among college freshmen and last year college students. Methods: Two groups were selected one is of freshmen and the other is of last year, both groups have 60 students. Each group has 30 students. Data were collected from the Delhi and National capital Region College students. In this research paper “Cognitive Self-Statements in Depression: Development of an Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire.” by Dr. Steven Hollon and Philip Kendall was used. “t” test was used for analysis. Results: There is no significance difference in the level of depression among freshmen and last year college students, but last year students are more depressed. Last year students have more pressure of making career than freshmen and to maintain their grades on regular basis and no fun activity with monotonous lifestyle can be a major cause of depression in today’s youth. Conclusion: In the present research study it is found that there is no significant difference among freshmen and last year college students. Freshmen are more enthusiastic and new to college which makes them interested to attend classes and less stress regarding the making of career as compared to last year college students. Last year students have more pressure to cope up with family issues and societal pressure.

Knowledge, attitude and practice towards acne vulgaris among acne patients

&lt;p class="abstract"&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;span lang="EN-IN"&gt;Acne is a chronic inflammatory disease known to occur in adolescent age group. There are many myths and misconceptions in patients as well as health physicians regarding the causes and treatment of acne. Objective of the study was to assess the knowledge, attitude and practice towards acne vulgaris among acne patients attending skin outpatient department in a private medical college.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class="abstract"&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Methods:&lt;/strong&gt; This is a cross sectional, questionnaire based study conducted between January - April 2016. 100 patients having acne lesions were included in the study.&lt;strong&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class="abstract"&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Results:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;span lang="EN-IN"&gt;Majority of the study subjects belonged to the age group 15-24. The study showed that 72% had good knowledge. More than half of the study subjects had wrong belief that eating oily foods, chocolates, spicy food caused acne but more than 40% of the study subjects had good knowledge about the causes and aggravating factors like it worsens by squeezing/picking/rubbing (83%), commonly found in oily skin (67%), has seasonal occurrence (54%), associated with premenstrual flare (42%), aggravated with use of cosmetics (41%). &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class="abstract"&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conclusions:&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;span lang="EN-IN"&gt;The acne patients had poor practice and unfavorable attitude in spite of good knowledge. Many myths exist among patients. Despite being so common and very well responsive to treatment, it is a major cause of depression among patients.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

The Effects of Japanese Shingon Esoteric Buddhism Meditation on Human Stress Management

Stress is a major cause of depression, sleepdisorder, high blood pressure, heart disease, kidney failure, early retirementfrom work and study, suicide and dementia. In this study, the electroencephalogram (E.E.G.) and stress hormoneanalysis were used to investigate the emotional fluctuations of healthy malemonks during Shingon Esoteric Buddhism meditation. The alpha waves significantly increasedduring Susokukan meditation in a fairly-trained monk. The alpha waves and theta waves significantlyincreased during Sannenjyu meditation in a well-trained monk. The stress hormone, amylase, significantlyincreased during Susokukan meditation. From these results, it is concluded that,despite stressful conditions, by doing Shingon Esoteric Buddhism meditation,under stressful conditions, one can reset the brain and bring it to a calmcondition.

Rate and Predictors of Depression among Selected Under Graduates and Post Graduate Students of Hazara University Mansehra, Pakistan

Mental health issues in university students are important problem which are needed to be addressed on priority basis according to the epidemiological data. Objective of current study were the screening of Post graduated and under graduates of Hazara University Garden Campus for assessing the rate of depression and its predictors among them. Total 600 students were approached, 300 post graduate students and 300 under graduate students data were collected by means of questionnaire. Beck Depression scale used as standard and questions were prepared according to it to assess major factors of depression. Response rate of students was reported 436/600, 209 under graduates and 227 post graduates respectively. In under graduates minimal to mild depression was reported 94.74% however only 5.26% students had moderate depression. On other hand 98.68% post graduates fall in mild to moderate degree of depression while moderate depression was reported in only 1.32% students. Interestingly none of student falls under category of severe depression. Major cause of depression among all graduates was academic stress as it is 73.68% and 54.60% in under graduates and post graduates respectively. Universities and health authorities should done studies among students to determine rate of depression and steps should be taken to minimize causes of depression among students so they can attain a good mental health status.

Psycho-Social Depression and Cardiovascular Health; A Study on Risk Factors in Hyderabad, Pakistan

Cardiovascular health hazards has become one of major life threats in Pakistan, the risks may vary from province to province. Present study aims to find out the role of psycho-social depression & its relation with risks of cardiovascular maladies in city of Hyderabad-Pakistan. A cross-sectional study was conducted from November 2012 to February 2013; based on multiple logistic to investigate the relationship between Depression, lifestyle & blood pressure variations. The Study included 174 subjects both males and females gender with age between 18- 25 years. Depression rating scale was used to evaluate type & cause of depression furthermore BMI and blood pressure of each subject were also noted. Our study observed that the intensity of stress is directly related with the disturbed blood pressures. Study also observed that with the increasing BMI the prevalence of depression is high. It is therefore concluded that depression is the major risk factor that will increase the risks of cardiovascular maladies; along with other factors like obesity, psychosocial issues like elevating crime & violence rate could be the major cause of depression in Hyderabad city

Closing the treatment gap for depression co-morbid with HIV in South Africa: Voices of afflicted women

This Background: In South Africa the rising comorbidity of mental disorders with other non-communicable and communicable diseases, particularly in people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA), has helped raise the public health priority of mental ill-health. Depression, in particular, compromises anti-retroviral treatment (ART) adherence and virological suppression, thus threatening the effectiveness of South Africa’s ART programme. Given that evidence-based treatment for depression comprises medication and/ or Western-derived psychotherapies, responding to the current interest in expanding mental health services for PLWHA demands an understanding of how best to provide culturally competent care within existing resource constraints. Aim: To explore the context and local understandings of depression in women living with HIV to inform the development of contextually appropriate mental health services that could be delivered within existing resource constraints inSouth Africa. Method: Semi-structured qualitative interviews were held with 35 women living with HIV in South Africa who met the diagnostic criteria for a major depressive disorder. Results: Being HIV-positive per se was not reported to be a major cause of depression. Instead, a number of social factors were reported. These included stigma and discrimination, poverty, and stressful life events. Symptoms of depression, especially social withdrawal, negative ruminating thoughts and excessive worry suggestive of comorbid anxiety, functioned to exacerbate and trap women in a negative depressive cycle. Social support emerged as a dominant coping strategy. Group-based interventions, which afford greater opportunities for improved social support, were mooted as the most appropriate intervention by the majority of participants. Individual counselling provided through a home visitation programme was suggested for those who were too ill or too poor to attend clinics. Task sharing was also endorsed. Conclusion: The need for multi-sector engagement in mental health promotion to address factors that trigger, maintain and exacerbate depression at a community level in PL-WHA is highlighted. The triggers, symptoms and local coping strategies employed by afflicted women in this study suggest a resonance with Western derived evidence-based psychological therapies. In relation to delivery channels, there was support for the provision of group interventions or home-based individual counselling using a task sharing model.

DNA methylation analysis of the angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) gene in major depression.

BackgroundThe angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) has been repeatedly discussed as susceptibility factor for major depression (MD) and the bi-directional relation between MD and cardiovascular disorders (CVD). In this context, functional polymorphisms of the ACE gene have been linked to depression, to antidepressant treatment response, to ACE serum concentrations, as well as to hypertension, myocardial infarction and CVD risk markers. The mostly investigated ACE Ins/Del polymorphism accounts for ∼40%–50% of the ACE serum concentration variance, the remaining half is probably determined by other genetic, environmental or epigenetic factors, but these are poorly understood.Materials and MethodsThe main aim of the present study was the analysis of the DNA methylation pattern in the regulatory region of the ACE gene in peripheral leukocytes of 81 MD patients and 81 healthy controls.ResultsWe detected intensive DNA methylation within a recently described, functional important region of the ACE gene promoter including hypermethylation in depressed patients (p = 0.008) and a significant inverse correlation between the ACE serum concentration and ACE promoter methylation frequency in the total sample (p = 0.02). Furthermore, a significant inverse correlation between the concentrations of the inflammatory CVD risk markers ICAM-1, E-selectin and P-selectin and the degree of ACE promoter methylation in MD patients could be demonstrated (p = 0.01 - 0.04).ConclusionThe results of the present study suggest that aberrations in ACE promoter DNA methylation may be an underlying cause of MD and probably a common pathogenic factor for the bi-directional relationship between MD and cardiovascular disorders.

Entrapment and perceived status in graduate students experiencing a recurrence of major depression.

The present study used a prospective design to test the role of involuntary subordination as a predictor of major depression. Involuntary subordination is a construct derived from social rank theory and has been implicated as a cause of major depression. Its most salient features include feelings of entrapment and unfavourable social comparisons (i.e., low perceived status). An initial sample of 146 graduate students underwent a diagnostic interview to confirm a history of major depression and also completed measures of entrapment and social comparison. After 16 months, participants were assessed for a recurrence of major depression. Participants who experienced a recurrence of depression had significantly higher levels of involuntary subordination (as measured by factor scores of entrapment and social comparison). A logistic regression analysis also showed that involuntary subordination predicted recurrence of depression, even when controlling for current major depression and the number of previous episodes. The present study demonstrates the advantages of adopting a social rank perspective in modeling major depression.