Maize Sector Research Articles

Postharvest losses at the farm level and its economy-wide costs: the case of the maize sector in Mozambique

ABSTRACTWith increasing population and demand for food, reducing food loss and waste is one of the greatest challenges worldwide. Current estimates point to over 1 billion tons of food lost and wasted worldwide, though nearly 10 percent of the global population is suffering from undernourishment and food insecurity. In Mozambique, about one-quarter of the population suffers from undernourishment and food insecurity. Estimates from FAO point to postharvest losses of maize in Mozambique at about 3.69 to 7.92 percent; this is less than one-fifth of the on-farm losses reported by other authors. In this study, an Equilibrium Displacement model is used to assess the economy-wide impact of postharvest losses of maize at the farm level. The impact of a 3 percent postharvest loss is tested. Results suggest that even this very conservative percentage of postharvest losses has a direct annual net cost of around $USD 28 million for both farmers and consumers domestically. This is equivalent to over 1 percent of the national budget. It is also higher than the average cost of food aid programs received over the last three years. Therefore, reducing postharvest losses of maize along with other interventions is crucial to achieve sustainable development and economic growth.

PRODUCTIVITY AND COMPETITIVENESS OF RWANDAN AGRICULTURE: A CASE STUDY OF THE MAIZE SECTOR

This study investigated the level of productivity and competitiveness of Rwandanagriculture by focusing on the case study of the maize sector. The data werecollected through close monitoring of maize production activities on a sample of 50producers from five maize producers’ cooperatives selected in the districts ofHuye, Rusizi, Gasabo, Burera and Bugesera (Rwanda) during two agriculturalseasons of 2013/2014 and 2014/2015. They were supplemented by directobservation, interviews with targeted resource persons and secondary data onmaize imports and exports retrieved from FAOSTAT website. The analysis wasconducted using the comparative analysis, the farm-level economic performanceindicators, the Net Export Index (NEI) and the Grubel-Lloyd (GL) measure. Theresults revealed that the yield was very low compared to theoretical expected yieldsfor about 80% of producers. The analysis showed that the rational use of improvedseeds, chemical and organic fertilizers improved the yield. The analysis of the NEIand the GL measures for maize flour and maize grain revealed that Rwanda was anet importer. For these staple foods, the results revealed that if Rwanda managed,through policy and institutional actions, to remove or alleviate the bottlenecks thatprevent farmers from producing enough for export, it could have had a competitiveadvantage on regional markets.

Impacts of drought-tolerant maize varieties on productivity, risk, and resource use: Evidence from Uganda

Weather variability is an important source of production risk for rainfed agriculture in developing countries. This paper evaluates the impacts of the adoption of drought-tolerant maize varieties on average maize yield, yield stability, risk exposure and resource use in rainfed smallholder maize farming. The study uses cross-sectional farm household-level data, collected from a sample of 840 farm households in Uganda. The adoption of drought-tolerant maize varieties increased yield by 15% and reduced the probability of crop failure by 30%. We further show that the adoption of these varieties increased investments in maize production at the extensive margin through maize area increase and to a more limited extent at the intensive margin through mechanization. The findings show promise for further uptake and scaling of drought-tolerant maize varieties for increased productivity, reduced risk, and the transformation of the maize sector.

Spatial market integration in the era of high food prices. A case of surplus and deficit maize markets in Kenya

ABSTRACTKenya, like most countries in the East Africa Region, has continued to be beleaguered by unabated high and volatile food prices. The government, in an effort to counter these challenges, has instituted various policies aimed at reversing the situation. This paper is aimed at examining spatial maize market integration in the presence of non-constant transaction costs and policies implemented. Findings indicate that market pairs close to each other were integrated, had a lower transaction cost and the price differential across markets were quickly corrected compared to markets further apart. Evaluation of the effects of policies on market integration shows the implementation of policies resulted in market distortion. The price difference between surplus and deficit markets were not corrected hence equilibrium was not achieved. When markets are poorly integrated, the price mechanism does not work and price signals cannot be transmitted thus allowing for efficient exchange of food products across spatial markets.To reduce transaction costs in the maize sector, the government should improve the road infrastructure connecting production areas with the markets and between markets. Harmonisation of the local government levies imposed on maize traversing different local municipalities will help reduce transaction costs. On the fertiliser subsidy, the government needs to collaborate with the private sector as it has a wide distribution network countrywide. This will ensure accessibility of the fertiliser by farmers in remote areas. Market forces should guide participation of the marketing board in the maize market. The board should not succumb to political pressure by purchasing maize at a higher price than the market prices.

Agricultural change and resilience: Agricultural policy, climate trends and market integration in the Mexican maize system

Abstract Ensuring that national food systems have capacity to withstand volatility and shocks is a growing concern. Given the complex processes involved, multi-scalar, multi-stressor analyses of critical food systems are needed. This paper presents a multi-scalar analysis of the Mexican maize system to provide insight into the sector’s evolution. The literature suggests that, over the last 30 years, climate trends, domestic and international market dynamics, and domestic policy changes have affected Mexico’s maize sector. In contrast, this study finds no conclusive evidence of wide-spread abandonment of maize. In addition, while economic globalization and climatic changes are often presented as the primary drivers of change in Mexico’s maize sector, results of this study show that domestic policy has been equally, if not more, influential in the sector’s evolution. More than international market integration, the relatively recent geographic concentration of commercial supplies within Mexico has increased national sensitivity to idiosyncratic shocks affecting the dominant supply region. In this light, smallholder persistence across Mexico may represent an underutilized strategic asset in policy efforts to enhance both domestic food security and national-level resilience. The Mexican case illustrates the potential role for proactive domestic policy in shaping sensitivities in the national food system to both internal and exogenous shocks.

A comparative political economic analysis of maize sector policies in eastern and southern Africa

Maize sector policies in eastern and southern Africa are characterized by a large and often growing presence of the state. Yet the scope, scale, and modalities of state activities vary substantially across countries. Drawing on data from Malawi, Zambia, Kenya, and Mozambique this article compares the relative degree of state intervention in the maize sector. We show that relative preferences for output market subsidies, input market subsidies, trade restrictions, or non-interventionist approaches reflect the interplay of interest group lobbying, patronage networks, and ethnic and regional political affiliations. These relationships have deep historical roots and have often been intensified in the context of the emergence of multiparty politics. We show that interventionist orientations in output markets and trade do not translate into better performance or welfare outcomes. Input subsidy preferences produce more ambiguous welfare results, when the opportunity costs are not fully accounted for.

A Survey: Potential Impact of Genetically Modified Maize Tolerant to Drought or Resistant to Stem Borers in Uganda

Maize production in Uganda is constrained by various factors, but especially drought and stem borers contribute to significant yield losses. Genetically modified (GM) maize with increased drought tolerance and/or Bt insect resistance (producing the Bacillus thuringiensis Cry protein) is considered as an option. For an ex ante impact analysis of these technologies, a farmer survey was carried out in nine districts of Uganda, representing the major farming systems. The results showed that farmers did rate stem borer and drought as the main constraints for maize farming. Most farmers indicated a positive attitude towards GM maize, and 86% of all farmers said they would grow GM maize. Farmer estimated yield losses to drought and stem borer damage were on average 54.7% and 23.5%, respectively, if stress occurred. Taking the stress frequency into consideration (67% for both), estimated yield losses were 36.5% and 15.6% for drought and stem borer, respectively. According to the ex-ante partial budget analysis, Bt hybrid maize could be profitable, with an average value/cost ratio of 2.1. Drought tolerant hybrid maize had lower returns and a value/cost ratio of 1.5. Negative returns occurred mainly for farmers with non-stressed grain yields below 2 t·ha−1. The regulatory framework in Uganda needs to be finalized with consideration of strengthening key institutions in the maize sector for sustainable introduction of GM maize.

The effects of potassium nutrition on water use in field-grown maize (Zea mays L.)

Water is about to become increasingly limited for crop production, which jeopardizes the whole maize sector. Potassium (K) nutrition has been proposed to mitigate water deficit in plants, but field-scale studies involving grain yield components are scarce. In this study, we aimed at analyzing the effect of K nutrition on grain yield, vegetative growth and physiological parameters of maize subjected to water deficit. The effect of K nutrition on water use efficiency was also calculated at the whole-crop level (WUE) and through leaf gas exchange measurements (WUEi). A large-scale field experiment was designed, combining three levels of K fertilization (low, normal and high K) and two water supply scenarios (normal and 30% deficit based on a water balance model). Water deficit induced a strong decrease in leaf area, which was essentially due to a lower leaf elongation rate. The grain yield of the water-stressed plants was 25% lower than that of the well-irrigated ones. Grain yield was even worse when K deficiency was superimposed on water deficit, with a specific effect of K on grain filling. The optimal K fertilization helped the plants mitigate the effect of water deficit, through a better WUE (+30%), which was related to lower leaf evapotranspiration (ET). Moreover, under water deficit, leaf rolling was more pronounced when K was added, which also prevented water losses. Leaf water potential measurements suggested that the isohydric behaviour (maintenance of close stomata during water stress) of the maize was made possible thanks to K fertilization. When calculated at field scale, ET was higher with K fertilization, due to its positive effect on leaf area, in spite of a better stomata control and better WUE. We concluded that K addition, in K deficient soils, can help maize to cope with droughts and could be used as a new management option.

Estimating the Supply Response of Maize in South Africa: A Nerlovian Partial Adjustment Model Approach

ABSTRACTMaize is the most important crop in South Africa, being both the major feed grain for livestock and the primary staple food crop for the majority of the population. Farmers’ production decisions regarding maize and their response to policy incentives are critical for national food security and regional trade. The aim of the study was to estimate the supply response of the South African maize sector to price and non-price incentives. A Nerlovian partial adjustment model was applied to historical time series data of area under maize cultivation, measured in hectares spanning from 1980-2012 to determine the supply response. Results indicate a short-run price elasticity of 0.24 and a long-run price elasticity of 0.36, signifying that maize farmers are less sensitive to price changes than non-price incentives. The results confirm that non-price incentives such as rainfall and technology seem to have more effect on maize supply than price incentives in South Africa. Given the findings, the study recommends policies and programmes that focus more on non- price incentives, such as technology and infrastructure development, investment in irrigation and research services, as a means of stabilising maize production in South Africa.

‘To Adopt or not to Adopt?’ Legume Adoption in Maize‐Based Systems of Northern Thailand: Constraints and Potentials

AbstractA considerable growth in the maize (Zea mays L.) sector in Southeast Asia has resulted in a rapid expansion and intensification of maize monoculture on sloping uplands. This practice entailed the heavy use of fertilisers, leading to environmental degradation and farmers' indebtedness. Intercropping of legumes with maize could complement or replace fertiliser inputs; however legume adoption by smallholder maize farmers remains low. This study investigates the constraints and potentials to integrate legumes in maize‐based cropping systems in such environments. A comparative study between maize monocropping and maize/legume relay cropping was carried out in two villages of Thailand, using surveys, participatory rural appraisal (PRA) tools and interviews. The results demonstrated that both cropping systems were equally profitable, although the maize yield in maize/legume relay cropping was lower than that in monocropping. Low selling price was the most cited reason by the non‐adopters for not introducing legumes. Selling price of legume grains, ease of harvesting, marketability and ease of growing were the four main criteria that determined the adopters' choice of legume species. Among the cultivated legumes, ricebean (Vigna umbellata L.) best fulfilled the criteria for the choice of legume species. Establishing maize/legume relay cropping as an alternative to maize monocropping under rainfed conditions can decrease risks, due to reduced expenses for farm inputs and similar economic returns. This study generated useful information for agricultural policy makers and development practitioners in identifying the barriers and facilitating factors that influence farmers' decision to adopt legumes and the conditions that shape the farmers' decision‐making environment. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Doubling maize (Zea mays) production of India by 2025 – Challenges and opportunities

Maize (Zea mays L.) is a commodity of high economic significance in India. Its demand and production is increasing more rapidly as compared to other major commodities. It is estimated that by 2025, India would require 50 million metric tonnes (MMT) maize grain, of which 32 MMT would be required in the feed sector, 15 MMT in the industrial sector, 2 MMT as food, and 1 MMT for seed and miscellaneous purposes. Over this, there would be about 10 MMT of export potential also. Thus, in the next 10 years there is a necessity and opportunity for doubling India's maize production from the current level of approximately 25 MMT. Prevalence of yield limiting biotic and abiotic stresses, lower adoption of modern production technologies in certain regions, extension and policy gaps, etc. remain major challenges before the Indian maize sector. Therefore, strong technological and policy interventions would be required to achieve the goal of doubling maize production. By 2025, productivity level of 5-6 tonnes/ha need to be targeted, in order to double the production without significant increase in acreage. Technological interventions like cultivar development and diversification, incorporation of stress resilience in the germplasm, accelerating the breeding process through new tools, and adoption of modern cultivation and protection practices including conservation agriculture technologies would play a key role in increasing the productivity. At the same time, policy interventions like strengthening of post-harvest handling infrastructure, price stabilization mechanisms, and value chains, streamlining of extension system, augmenting hybrid seed delivery mechanisms, appropriate policy on genetically modified seeds etc. will be essentially required.

The Aggregate economic benefits of the National Cultivar Trials for Maize in South Africa with specific reference to the Highveld region

ABSTRACTThe South African maize sector has been revolutionised from a system of production with low use of modern technologies to a leading maize producer in the African continent. That transformation is in part attributable to South Africa's investment in the national maize cultivar trials, which have facilitated the adoption and use of maize cultivars that are highly adapted to commercial farmer localities, causing considerable gains in yields. The economic value of the public investment in the trials remains unknown. This study uses experimental yields spanning 1977 - 2012 to attribute the influence of the national maize cultivar trials to maize yield improvement on farmer localities in the Highveld region of South Africa. Using attribution methods, the study estimates that 24.3 kg per hectare of extra maize yields accrued to commercial maize producers because of the national maize trials. The economic value of these investments was found to be R1.4billion (in 2012 currency values). The study estimates that South Africa received R37 of benefit for every rand invested by the Agricultural Research Council (ARC) in the trials.

Strategies for White and Yellow Maize Cultivar Improvement Research and Technology Transfer in Mexico

The Mexican federal government recently implemented a program to increase Mexico's maize (Zea mays L.) production through development and diffusion of technological packages incorporating improved seed cultivars. The initiative is known as MasAgro, Modernización Sustentable de la Agricultura Tradicional (i.e., Program of Sustainable Modernization of Traditional Agriculture). Mexico's diverse maize production sector requires research and technology transfer of white and yellow maize produced under rainfed and irrigated conditions by both traditional and commercially oriented farmers. A spatial and intertemporal Mexican maize sector model was formulated to assess three strategies for targeted cultivar development and optimized spatial distribution of maize production to improve Mexico's food security. Information by state and production season for average years 2008 to 2010 was used to obtain the model solution. Information and data for the model came from secondary sources, primarily Mexican government institutions. Research results provide guidance for Mexico's agricultural research and technology transfer efforts. Mexico's potential maize production was estimated, and strategies that consider distribution logistics and domestic maize consumption were compared. Results indicate that Mexico's potential maize production is 29.34 million Mg, or 95.1% of the average annual Mexican maize consumption between 2008 and 2010. The three maize sector planning strategies evaluated had higher social welfare values than the actual maize sector conditions in the baseline period 2008 to 2010. Thus, there are significant opportunities for agricultural research and technology transfer to improve Mexico's well‐being using integrated maize sector planning that includes targeted cultivar development and customized technology transfer for different regions, crop water conditions, and farmers.

A Story of Post‐Fordist Exploitation: Financialization and Small‐Scale Maize Farmers in Turkey

AbstractAfter the implementation of economic restructuring policies in Turkish agriculture, farming communities experienced significant changes in the patterns of agricultural production over the last decade. The dramatic shift from labor‐intensive field crops to maize farming represents such a change, particularly for small‐scale farmers, since high‐yield maize farming is driven by private agrifood corporate demand. In this article, I explore how this shift influences the relations of production in agriculture through a commodity‐system analysis of the maize sector in Turkey. Through the qualitative analysis of the semistructured in‐depth interviews and secondary data, I find that small‐scale farmers are able to participate in maize farming, even as their dependence on production credits to participate in industrial maize farming crucially reduces their bargaining power with private industry. I argue that the traditional Marxist approach, accumulation by dispossession, is not sufficient to explain the participation of small‐scale farmers. Instead, I propose a new concept, entrepreneurial exploitation, to describe the participation of small‐scale investors in the post‐Fordist regime. Thereby, I point to the important role of expansion of credit markets as a consequence of financialization.

The Effect Of Higher Wages On Production Cost And Mechanization: A South African Maize Sector Study

The South African labor market was recently characterized by violent and hostile labor strikes by workers demanding exorbitant wage increases. These demands and violent protests overflowed to the agricultural sector, followed by an announcement of a 51% increase in the agricultural minimum wage. Labor costs form an integral part of a producers production costs and labor increases will therefore directly affect the profitability of producers. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect higher wages have on the South African maize sector. Furthermore, to determine whether there is a relationship between higher labor cost and increased mechanization in the maize sector. Quantitative and qualitative research techniques were utilized to address the research problem. The findings of the study include that the higher wages do not have a significant effect on the maize sector as it is less dependent on manual labor and therefore more tolerant to wage increases. Furthermore, it was determined that there is a relationship between the maize sectors level of mechanization and the impact of higher wages. It was found that the maize sector is more developed and mechanized than other agricultural sectors. Notwithstanding, it is recommended that the sector should maintain the investment in mechanization to increase global competitiveness.

Modelling the impact of the ‘fast track’ land reform policy on Zimbabwe's maize sector

Zimbabwe has recently gone through a widely criticised land reform process that is argued to be the cause of subdued agricultural production. This paper attempts to present a counterfactual picture of the maize market in Zimbabwe had land reform been managed appropriately. The counterfactual is developed through a partial equilibrium framework in order to quantify the impact of the land reform programme. This, to our knowledge, is the first attempt at applying a partial equilibrium framework to an analysis of the impact of land reform. The results of the post-2000 land reform policy simulation showed that actual total maize output was lower than what could have been produced if it was under a pre-2000 land reform system. The study validates the assertion that land reforms contributed to the contraction of output. These results suggest the need for a well planned and executed land reform process, which can still play an important role in output growth and food security.

Impact pathways of trade liberalization on rural livelihoods: A case study of smallholder maize farmers in Mexico

Research assessing the impacts of trade liberalization on poor rural populations can be divided intotwo categories: more quantitative research, assessing relationships between specific, measurable variables (such as changes in the macroeconomic environment and their impact on farmers’ income levels); and more qualitative research, which takes trade policy as a context and provides broad, descriptive data about dynamic livelihood strategies. In this paper, we outline a framework that could be used to integrate these two approaches by unravelling the macro-micro linkages between national policies and responses at a household level. Using the Mexican maize sector as an illustration, we trace the pathways through which trade liberalization (including the North American Free Trade Agreement) has interacted with changes in government institutions, and thereby impacted on farmers’ livelihood strategies. We identify three pathways through which trade policy affects households and individuals: via enterprises, distribution channels, and government, and we link these to a five-category typology of smallholders’ strategies for escaping rural poverty: intensification, diversification, expansion, increased off-farm income and exit from agriculture. Based on a case-study from Chiapas, Mexico, we report on farmers’ responses to post-liberalization agricultural policies. Data suggest that farmers have intensified maize production, sought more off-farm employment or have exited agriculture altogether. The potential for smallholders to escape poverty by diversifying farms or expanding their land-holdings or herd-size has been largely unrealized. We provide a conceptual framework for linking the impacts of liberalization to farmers’ livelihood strategies and suggest that this framework is useful in the context of agricultural modernisation initiatives that seek to increase agricultural productionand productivity.CITE AS:Hellin, J., Groenewald, S., Keleman, A. (2012). Impact pathways of trade liberalization on rural livelihoods: A case study of smallholder maize farmers in Mexico. Iberoamerican Journal of Development Studies, 1 (1): 58-82

Smallholder Livelihood Adaptation in the Context of Neoliberal Policy Reforms: A Case of Maize Farmers in Southern Veracruz, Mexico

Governments around the world have embraced trade liberalisation as a means of enhancing efficiency to realise economic growth and alleviate poverty. Likewise, the Mexican government implemented neoliberal policy reforms, the NAFTA in particular, to stimulate sustainable development. Using the Mexican maize sector as illustration, this article describes the adaptation process of smallholders to market changes shaped by these reforms. Going beyond the aggregated level, we have investigated smallholders' livelihood strategies. Contrary to what economic models estimated, our data suggests that farmers intensified the cultivation of maize rather than switch to sectors in which Mexico has a comparative advantage.

Technological innovation and efficiency in the Nigerian maize sector: Parametric stochastic and non-parametric distance function approaches

The current world food crisis has necessitated alternative policy actions in most countries, including increased investment in agricultural research and development. This study uses duality theory to obtain allocative and cost efficiency from the parametric stochastic distance function, and results are then compared to estimates from the non-parametric distance function. The study further evaluates the impact of technological innovations and other policy variables on technical, allocative and cost efficiency from both approaches in a second-stage endogeneity-corrected Tobit regression model. Mean technical, allocative and cost efficiency ranges from 80.1 per cent to 86.7 per cent, from 57.8 per cent to 73.8 per cent, and from 50.3 per cent to 62.3 per cent respectively. The analysis of technical, allocative and cost efficiency with respect to technological innovation and other policy factors is robust. Results show that policies aimed at maize technology development and its timely dissemination, as well as improvements in education and access to credit and extension, could promote technical, allocative and cost efficiency, reduce yield variability, enhance farm income and food security and reduce poverty in Nigeria.

The Evolving Maize Sector in Asia: Challenges and Opportunities

Asia's maize (Zea mays L.) sector has shown rapid growth during the last few decades. This article reviews the evolving maize sector in Asia, focusing on the eight main maize-producing countries: China, India, Indonesia, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam. Taken together, these eight Asian countries now produce 98% of Asia's maize and 26% of global maize but show major geographic variation in maize economy indicators and dynamics. The article flags some of the implications of Asia's maize sector for the poor and the evolving roles for the public and private sectors. Challenges and opportunities to accelerate maize production in Asia are reviewed. There remain significant growth opportunities for maize in Asia, and this calls for an integrated research and development approach to strengthen the innovation pathways needed to sustainably reduce poverty, enhance incomes and conserve natural resources.