Maize Growers Research Articles

Determinants of Maize Productivity: Evidence from Smallholder Maize Farmers in Gudeya Bila District, Ethiopia

Agriculture is the center stage in the economic policy development of Ethiopia. The agricultural sector in Ethiopia is characterized by low maize productivity due to backward technology adoption. Agriculture plays a crucial role in the economic development of a country; without achieving substantial enhancement in agricultural production and productivity, no country has moved to the take-off stage of economic development. The general objective of the study is to assess the determinants of maize crop productivity in the Gudeya Bila District. The study aims to investigate the determinants of maize productivity in the study area. The primary and secondary data were collected from 100 maize growers in the study location during 2018/19. Descriptive statistics and econometric methods were developed for the data analysis. Qualitative and quantitative primary data were developed. To get the required primary data questionnaires, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions were used. For the data analysis, Ordinary Least Square Model (OLS) was employed. The study found that sex, landholding, number of oxen, fertilizers, family size, educational status, the fair price of output, and improved seed were positively influencing maize production and productivity; whereas age, the acidity of land, and credit were negatively influencing maize production and productivity in the study area. The study recommended that the stallholder farmers should be enhanced the use of oxen, fertilizer, improved seed, knowledge, and fair price of output to enhance maize productivity. Therefore, concern bodies should give important attention to maize production and productivity, which in turn increase smallholder income. Keywords: Agriculture, Maize crop, OLS, Productivity, Smallholder farmers, Ethiopia DOI: 10.7176/RHSS/12-7-02 Publication date: April 30 th 2022

The Influence of Different Nitrogen Fertilizer Rates, Urease Inhibitors and Biological Preparations on Maize Grain Yield and Yield Structure Elements

The field experiment was performed in 2019–2021 at the Experimental Station of Vytautas Magnus University Agriculture Academy (54°52′ N, 23°49′ E). The soil of the experimental field was Endohipogleyic-Eutric Planasol. The studied factors were: Factor A—different nitrogen fertilizer rates: (1) 100 kg N ha−1; (2) 140 kg N ha−1; (3) 180 kg N ha−1; Factor B—the use of urease inhibitors (UI) and biological preparations (BP): (1) urease inhibitors (UI) and biological preparations (BP) were not used; (2) Urease inhibitor (UI ATS)—ammonium thiosulfate—[(NH4)2S2O3 12-0-0-26S]; (3) Urease inhibitor (UI URN)—N-butyl-thiophosphorus triamide (NBPT) and N-propyl-thiophosphorus triamide (NPPT); (4) Biological preparation (BP HUM)—suspension of humic and fulvic acids; (5) Biological preparation (BP FIT)—Ascophyllum nodosum suspension. Our studies showed that the highest yield of maize grain (8.9–12.0 t ha−1) was obtained by fertilizing with N180 and using the urease inhibitor ammonium thiosulfate (ATS). ATS significantly increased corn grain yield in all backgrounds of nitrogen fertilization. The investigated urease inhibitors and biologics had a higher and more significant (p < 0.05) effect on maize grain yield when fertilized with N100 nitrogen. The increase in nitrogen fertilizer rates had an effect on maize grain yield, with the largest increase in yield being found in the increase in nitrogen rate from N100 to N140, and the increase in rate to N180 was less effective. The maximum mass of 1000 grains (323.5 g) was determined in 2019 by fertilization with N180 and use of the urease inhibitor UI URN. The urease inhibitor UI ATS was more effective when fertilized with lower rates of N100 and N140. Positive, moderate, strong and very strong, statistically significant correlations (r2 = 0.48–0.91) were most often found between the latter indicators and nitrogen fertilizer rates throughout the study year. The largest amount of grain (497 units) in the cob was determined in 2019, using fertilization with N140 and UI ATS, but no significant differences were found between the different fertilizer rates and the tested preparations. These results suggest that urease inhibitors and biologics can reduce dependence on nitrogen fertilizers and increase maize yield, a technology that should be practiced by maize growers.

HISTORY, DEVELOPMENT AND MARKET OF MAIZE CULTIVARS WITH LOW SEED COST IN BRAZIL

Maize is one of the cereal crops most produced on the planet. It constitutes one of the species of greatest economic interest and provides multiple products, with applications in diverse sectors, from animal feed to industrial products and even human food. More and more companies that represent this segment release genetically modified maize hybrids as a manner of ensuring return on investment, decreasing the supply of conventional (non-transgenic) cultivars available on the market. Seed is one of the main components of the cost of maize production. Thus, farmers that obtain lower yield are not able to afford to pay the relatively high costs of the high technology hybrid seeds or to improve their production system, but it is possible to obtain satisfactory results through lower seed investments. Intervarietal hybrids may represent an alternative for meeting the needs of small and medium-sized farmers, with fewer resources for investments in inputs and seeds, and for supplying varieties that meet the needs of the small maize grower. This review presents a history of conventional maize breeding in Brazil and describes the main maize cultivars with low-cost seeds developed by public R&D companies, mainly focusing on the Instituto Agronômico (IAC) as an option for small and medium-sized maize growers in Brazil.

Perceived Effective Adaptation Strategies against Climate Change Impacts: Perspectives of Maize Growers in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania.

The world has been experiencing a tremendous increase in the average of warmth and shifts in rainfall quantity, seasonality, and occurrence of prolonged droughts, increased temperatures and intense precipitation. This study assessed effective adaptation strategies used by maize growers in cushioning climate change impacts in Iringa district. Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected. Qualitative data were collected through focus group discussions, key informant interviews and participant observations, while quantitative data were collected using household questionnaire. Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected covering a wide range of climate change impacts and response strategies. We found that maize production has decreased during the past two decades, since the year 2000 (i.e., from the average of 10-15 to 2-5 maize sacks per acre). It was affirmed that increased yield outputs and incomes are among the key determinants for the effectiveness of a response strategy. Findings indicate that some response strategies indicated a significant increase in maize crop yield. Such responses include using improved maize variety (P = 0.000 (P < 0.05), drought-tolerant crop (P = 0.014 (P < 0.05), changing planting dates (P = 0.001 (P < 0.05) and crop rotation (P = 0.000 (P < 0.05). Barriers such as access to capital, poor farming technologies, absence of improved maize agencies or shops, poor access to weather information and high prices for farm inputs to adopting effective adaptation strategies were uncovered. Moreover, most adaptation strategies were found to significantly increase crop production to most of the household farmers, thus leading to high mazie production. Thus, maize growers need support to enhance their locally-led adaptation options to climatic impacts.

Time series modelling for forecasting area, production and productivity of Maize in Punjab

From last three decades the state government and universities has been keenly recommending maize cultivation as part of its crop diversification strategy in Punjab. Conversely, its own agencies have been abortive to come to the rescue of maize growers, who are forced to sell their produce at 40–60 per cent lower than the minimum support price (MSP) of the crop. Farmers got up to Rs1100 per quintal against Rs1850 MSP in 2020–21. Keeping in view such scenario and stagnant cropping pattern, area under maize crop was forecasted on the basis of past observations. ARIMA stochastic modelling was used to analyze the area, production and productivity in Punjab mainly to identify the most effective model that will forecast these up till 2026–27. The paper concludes on the basis of forecast available that area under maize will follow the cutback during the next eight years. If concerted efforts are made on the part of government, there is a possibility to increase the area under maize crop.

Review of good agricultural practices for smallholder maize farmers to minimise aflatoxin contamination

Maize is consumed world-wide as staple food, livestock feed, and industrial raw material. However, it is susceptible to fungal attack and at risk of aflatoxin contamination under certain conditions. Such contamination is a serious threat to human and animal health. Ensuring that the maize used by food industry meets standards for aflatoxin levels requires significant investment across the supply chain. Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) form a critical part of a broader, integrated strategy for reduction of aflatoxin contamination. We reviewed and summarised the GAP of maize that would be effective and practicable for aflatoxin control within high-risk regions for smallholder farmers. The suggested practicable GAP for smallholder farmers were: use of drought-tolerant varieties; timely harvesting before physiological maturity; sorting to remove damaged ears and those having poor husk covering; drying properly to 13% moisture content; storage in suitable conditions to keep the crop clean and under condition with minimally proper aeration, or ideally under hermetic conditions. This information is intended to provide guidance for maize growers that will help reduce aflatoxin in high-risk regions, with a specific focus on smallholder farmers. Following the proposed guidelines would contribute to the reduction of aflatoxin contamination during pre-harvest, harvest, and post-harvest stages of the maize value chain.

PROBLEMS FACED BY THE RICE AND MAIZE GROWERS DUE TO CLIMATE CHANGE, MITIGATION AND ADAPTATION MEASURES UNDERTAKEN

A research study was conducted in the state of Arunachal Pradesh in order to identify the various problems faced by the rice (Oryza sativa L.) and maize (Zea mays L.) grower in the state due to climate change and the various mitigation and adaptation measures undertaken by them in view of the problems faced by them. The study was carried out for the time period from 1987 to 2018 in two districts viz. East Siang and Lohit of Arunachal Pradesh; being the highest producing district of rice and maize in the state respectively. The study showed that the respondents perceived climate change and reported to have observed a change in the timing and duration of rainfall received along with changes in temperature. They reported various problems faced by them in the duration of the study while ranking decreasing yield as the most important problem faced by them, followed by pest and disease infestation and weed infestation in the fields. The farmers also adopted various means in order to counter the problems faced due to climate change like changing the cropping time and pattern, introducing climate resilient varieties and switching to more economically profitable crops. In view of the observations made during the study, some policies and future course of actions suggested for the problems faced by the farmers can include adoption of sustainable and diversified form of agriculture, involvement of Government, cooperative and self help groups to reduce price risk. Farmers can adopt water saving technologies like controlled irrigation, development of crop monitoring, climate forecasting and mapping the climate susceptible areas are the immediate need of the hour.

English

Maize (Zea mays) is an important food crop in Nigeria, and it is fast becoming the most widely cultivated crop. Several efforts have been made by the Nigeria Government to make the country self-sufficiency in maize production, but some biotic and abiotic factors are impeding this achievement. Among the biotic constraints militating against maize production in Nigeria, armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) is most devastating in recent times.&nbsp; The larvae of this insect pest are the culprits that caused damage to maize plants. They leave several feeding holes on the leaf lamina of the crop, giving maize tattered appearance. The infestation level by armyworm on the field experienced by maize growers in recent times calls for great concern in Nigeria. This outbreak is not out of mere coincidence, but a result of numerous factors which is chiefly driven by climate change. Climatic change over the years has altered temperature, moisture, relative humidity and CO2 concentration in our ecosystem. These changes seem to favour the proliferation of pests, even making secondary pests like armyworm to become a major pest of maize in Nigeria and Africa at large. In this paper, we reviewed the biology of armyworm, the influence of climate change on pest prevalence and some control measures for coping with armyworm infestation. Integrated pest management was advocated as the most sustainable management approach. Key words: Armyworm, temperature, rainfall, maize, integrated pest management.

Toxicity and efficacy of selected insecticides for managing invasive fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on maize in Indonesia

The fall armyworm (FAW), Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith), has become an important maize pest that invaded Indonesia in the early 2019. As a highly polyphagous pest, S. frugiperda larvae feed on a total of 353 different host plants belonging to 76 plant families with causing yield losses up to 100%. To overcome this pest, maize grower in some countries using insecticides. Therefore, this study was conducted during 20192020 at Padjadjaran University, Faculty of Agriculture and at farmer's field in the Ciledug sub-district of Cirebon, West Java, Indonesia to evaluate the efficacy of several insecticides against S. frugiperda in laboratory and screenhouse to confirm field efficacy against natural infestation. Nineteen insecticides belonging to different chemical group were first tested for their toxicity against the larvae under laboratory conditions and the result will be used as a baseline susceptibility data to ditermine insecticide efficacy against of S. frugiperda in screenhouse and natural infestations in maize fields. The results showed that among insecticides tested, the highest mortality (>80%) were noted with emamectin benzoat, chlorfenapyr, phoxim, methomyl and indoxacarb under laboratory, screenhouse and field conditions. Among all the treatments, significantly higher maize yield of 29.28 t/ha was recorded in emamectin benzoat with 33.89% increase over control, followed by phoxim (29.92 t/ha), indoxacarb (27.5 t/ha), methomyl (26.88 t/ha) and chlorfenapyr (26.38 t/ha) with a per cent increase of 24.10, 14.68, 11.49 and 9.42%, respectively over control. The lowest yield was noticed in untreated control (24.11 t/ha). Emamectin benzoate was consistently more effective than other insecticides at suppressing S. frugiperda populations and protecting maize plants. Furthermore, these insecticides can be used as one of the components of integrated pest management of S. frugiperda and delayed the development of resistance against insecticides.

Profit efficiency and influencing factors for the inefficiency of maize production in Bangladesh

This study examines the profit efficiency and the responsible factors for inefficiency in 350 hybrid maize growers in selected areas of Bangladesh by using the profit frontier function and inefficiency effects model. A multistage stratified random sampling procedure was used for data collection. This study proves that maize production is profitable. The average net return is 32392 BDT/acre and the benefit-cost ratio was more than 2. Farmers use more organic manure, but less chemical fertilizer than recommended doses. The outcomes also disclosed a profit efficiency score of 0.71, which indicates a 29% profit inefficiency. The average net benefit was 32392.40 BDT/acre and profit-loss 16975.99 BDT/acre. This implies that the enhancement of allocative, technical, and scale efficiencies can reach a potential profit of 49368.39 BDT/acre. This study found that age, educational level, extension experience, and non-farm income were the main factors for profit inefficiency. This study suggests that farming efficiency can be increased remarkably by enhancing the educational status and proper extension services. Furthermore, the necessary steps for promoting an effective system of soil management with good irrigation facilities and increasing agricultural training will improve efficiency. • The Bangladesh maize production need attention. . • The Battese and Coelli model was used. • Maize is an excellent crop for food, feed and industrial utilization. • The market potentiality of maize is enormous. • Socio-economic factors play important role in maize production.

Association between Knowledge, Adoption and Socio-Economic Profile of Maize Growers regarding Improved Maize Production Practices in Begusarai District of Bihar

The present study on socio-economic profile of the respondents and determine the level of knowledge and adoption in improved maize cultivation practices as enterprises. Begusarai district of Bihar is selected purposively for the present study, because there were large number of maize farmers in the district and also the researcher knows about the area and well conversant with language, geographical, agricultural and other aspect of the area. There are 18 blocks in the selected district out of that Teghra block is selected purposively for present study because there are large number of farmers. From that seven villages were randomly selected and a total of 120 maize farmers were selected using proportionate random sampling method. a comprehensive structured interview schedule covering all aspects of the improved maize production practices was prepared. The items included in the interview schedule were structured questions and objective type questions which were suitable to all categories of respondents. The data was collected from them, analyzed using MS-excel and the finding of the study has been given below. Majority of the respondents possessed middle level of innovativeness and economic motivation and high level of decision making ability and risk orientation. The overall knowledge an adoption level of the maize farmers was found under medium level. The local extension officials along with scientists should take appropriate knowledge promotional strategies such as training, demonstrations, exhibitions, etc., to impart cent per cent knowledge level and to increase the extent of adoption among the respondents.

Analysis of Technical and Allocative Efficiency among Small Scale Maize Producers in Arsi Negele Woreda, West Arsi Zone of Oromia, Ethiopia

This research study is carried out to examine Technical and allocative efficiency among Maize growers in Aesi Negele Woreda, West Arsi Zone of Oromia, Ethiopia. The study is based on primary and secondary data, collected through a well designed questionnaire from a sample of 98 small holder Maize producers. The data were analyzed with the use of stochastic frontier Cobb. Douglas production function to estimate the efficiency level and identify important factors affecting the efficiency. Moreover, the allocative efficiency was estimated using APP, MPP and MVP. The maximum likelihood estimates for the model indicate that land, seed quantity and labor have positive significant effects on maize yield. However, the amount of fertilizer applied had a negative relation with maize output. Allocative efficiency analysis reveals that land, labour and seed are underutilized, while fertilizer over utilized for maize production in the study area. Finally, the study recommends training for maize growers and provision of advanced new technological options has a vital role in boosting production and productivity efficiently.

English

This paper compares the supply and demand of agricultural technologies related to maize crop in Sussundenga district, Mozambique. The field work was carried out in February and March 2018 and comprises of a survey of 140 households&rsquo; maize growers, interviews with 15 agricultural technicians and six focus group meetings (four with maize growers and two with agricultural technicians). Data analysis was done using Bardin&rsquo;s content analysis and descriptive statistics. The results reveal that agricultural research and rural extension focus more on supplying technologies related to maize production. But farmers have holistic expectations that go beyond production technologies to include the entire marketing chain. It makes the technical support provided with little use to maize growers. Besides it, there are also farmers&rsquo; unanswered demands and the supply of non-demanded technologies. It means that there is a mismatch between supply and demand of maize farming technologies. Agricultural research and rural extension organizations are suggested to supply not only agricultural technologies that maximize crop yield, but also services that help households improve their ability to store agricultural products and to sell it when prices are high. These actions have the potential to improve agricultural market performance and make the agricultural technologies more useful to maize growers. Key words: agricultural market, agricultural technologies, maize farming, mismatch, rural households, unanswered demands.

What Determines the Uptake of Multiple Tools to Mitigate Agricultural Risks among Hybrid Maize Growers in Pakistan? Findings from Field-Level Data

Arable farming is an intrinsically risky enterprise. Therefore, managing risks and uncertainties in agriculture is very important as it affects all sectors of the economy of a developing country like Pakistan. To do so, a whole suite of options is available to the farming community to safeguard against any type of risk. However, farmers’ behavior of the concurrent adoption of multiple risk management tools is largely ignored in previous studies and has formed the rationale for this research. Thus, the current study is intended to investigate farmers’ decisions of adopting risk management strategies (contract farming, off-farm income diversification, and farm credit use) and to examine the impacts of a variety of factors on farmers’ risk management decisions. The present study is carried out in four districts of Punjab province, Pakistan with a focus on hybrid maize growers. A multivariate probit model is used to evaluate the impacts of independent variables on growers’ choices of adopting contract farming, off-farm income diversification, and farm credit use to manage farm risks keeping in view the potential for the concurrent adoption of these risk management strategies. Results show that 78% of farmers are risk-averse and hence ready to manage risks. The top risk faced by farmers is price risk followed by biological, climatic, and financial risks. Contract farming is the most popular strategy (61% farmers) followed by off-farm income diversification (49% farmers), and the use of farm credit (42% farmers). The findings also reveal that the decisions of adopting risk management strategies are interlinked while the adoption of one risk management tool complements farmers’ decision to adopt other risk management strategies. In addition, the risk management strategies’ adoption choices are affected by the number of factors including socioeconomic characteristics, farmers’ risk perceptions about risk sources, and their attitude towards risk. The study recommends the provision of timely information (climatic, extension) along with easy access to farm credit and the streamlining of contractual arrangements.

Risk factors and strategies for integrated management of bird pests affecting maize establishment

Bird damage to maize crops is an important cause of economic loss for maize growers in Italy. Consequently, the objectives of this study were to identify main species of birds attacking maize in north-eastern Italy and quantify the effects of agronomic characteristics, cultivation practices, landscape variables, and management practices on the incidence of bird damage to maize at establishment. A systematic survey of 5065 ha of maize cultivated land (Zea mays L.) at early plant stages was performed from 1986 to 2020, resulting in a dataset of 1619 records. Corvids (Corvus cornix) were found to be the main culprits of damage to maize fields. A multifactorial model was applied to assess the impact of potential risk factors. The presence of nearby roosting areas, such as hedgerows and woodlands with trees higher than 7 m, was associated with a five-fold increased risk of damage by birds. No-tillage soil management was associated with a higher risk of bird damage when compared with minimum tillage and conventional tillage systems. The probability of damage to a field with no risk factors was always low (<1%). The application of naturally derived bird repellents incorporated in seed coatings (i.e., ScudoSeed® and Eurodif®) decreased the risk of damage to maize by birds below the threshold value of 15%, yet they were slightly outperformed by their synthetic counterparts (i.e., Methiocarb and Ziram). Our results further suggest that it is possible to implement IPM principles for pest birds in maize.

The important determinants of the adoption behavior: a case study of recommended maize production technologies in Tanzania

Numerous technologies have been developed in the agricultural sector to facilitate its contribution to the livelihood of the people. However, the adoption of these technologies has been very low or non-existence at all. This paper determined the important factors/variables that determine adoption behaviour. A validated, pre-tested structured questionnaire was used to collect data from 113 respondents, equivalent to 5 percent of a population selected to represent maize growers in selected villages of Njombe District. The collected data were analyzed using the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) and the linear regression model was used to investigate the influence of the study variables. The study findings show both independent and intervening factors investigated determined the adoption behaviour. However, in all the technologies investigated the intervening factors influenced highly the adoption behaviour. The results presented provide sufficient evidence in supporting the relevance of intervening variables as the most important determinants of the adoption behaviour. The study suggests that emphasis be put on these variables in agricultural extension programs in order to enhance the adoption of technologies by farmers.

Resource use efficiency and constraints in cultivation of maize in Haryana

The study was carried out during 2019 to determine the resource use efficiency and constraints faced in kharif maize growers in Karnal and Yamunanagar districts of Haryana. The experiment was conducted by surveying 60 maize cultivators selecting 30 respondents from each i.e. Karnal and Yamunanagar districts. Maize growers were personally interacted to extract relevant information. Cobb- Douglas production function was used to determine the resource use efficiency of maize cultivation to find out the most significant factor which influences the respondent; Henry Garrett's (1969) ranking technique was used. For optimal allocation of resource, it was observed that all the inputs in both the districts were less than unity, which indicates that all these inputs were over utilized in the respective district. It reflects that all the inputs were over utilized and use of these inputs needs to be curtailed to attain higher returns. Major constraints were watch and ward required to protect the crop from stray animals, lack of availability of suitable machines for threshing of maize, lack of availability of maize dryers and lack of availability of quality seed of recommended maize hybrids as specified by the maize growers.

Perception of Farmers on Maize as a Potential Crop for Climate Change Adaptation in Northern Bangladesh

The main purposes of this research study was to determine the perception of farmers on maize as a potential crop for climate change adaptation and to access problems faced by the farmers in maize production. Maize cultivation is getting importance in Bangladesh, with economic efficiency of production estimated at 87%. Data were collected from the farmers of four villages of Biral Upazila under Dinajpur district in the Northern Bangladesh during 28 March to April 28 2018 from the 90 randomly sleeted farmers. Both descriptive and correlation coefficients test was performed for statistical analysis. Results revealed that almost three-fifths (61.10 percent) of the farmers had medium, while 20.00 percent of them had low and 18.90 percent had high perception of maize as a potential crop for climate change adaption. Correlation analysis indicated that age, education, cosmopoliteness, training received, knowledge on climate change and extension media contact of the farmers had significant positive relationships with their perception of maize as a potential crop for climate change adaption. On the contrary, farm size, maize cultivation area, farming experience and annual income had no significant relationship with their perception of maize as a potential crop for climate change adaption. ‘Non-availability of storage facilities’ was ranked as the 1st or top problems for maize production. Other problems (in descending order) included ‘getting fair price problem due to interfere of middleman’, ‘non-availability of farm labour’, ‘lack of /or inadequate access to weather forecast technologies’, ‘no hybrid maize seed availability, ‘non-habit of human for consumption as food’, ‘poor information access regarding climate change adaptation strategies by maize farmers’, ‘lack of inputs in time’, ‘non-suitability of land for maize cultivation’, as well as ‘poor agricultural extension service delivery’. Further, it might be recommended that necessary support should be provided for the maize growers to minimize their problems on prioritize basis.

Fall armyworm invasion heightens pesticide expenditure among Chinese smallholder farmers

Invasive species are a prominent feature of global change. Aside from their direct impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, invasive crop pests routinely trigger environmentally-disruptive actions e.g., unguided applications of synthetic pesticides. Since 2016, the polyphagous fall armyworm (FAW, Spodoptera frugiperda J.E. Smith) has rapidly spread across Africa and Asia, impacting millions of hectares of agricultural crops. Upon its invasion of Yunnan (China) in late 2018, S. frugiperda attained outbreak population levels and inflicted important feeding damage in smallholder-managed maize crops. In this study, we show how local maize growers rely primarily on pesticides for FAW management and employ these products at 3-fold higher application frequencies as compared to 2018. Local reliance upon high-risk compounds (i.e., pyrethroids, organophosphates) decreased over time, with a respective 100% and 62% farmers using these compounds in 2018 versus 27% and 5% in 2020. Conversely, 71% and 95% farmers used new, selective compounds such as emamectin benzoate and chlorfenapyr by 2020. The full cost of pesticide-based crop protection increased from US $81 per hectare and season in 2018 to $276 in 2020. In farmer-managed fields, FAW infestation levels averaged 8.3 larvae per 100 plants and thus remained below economic injury levels (EILs) as established in other countries. Farmers' use of two or more pesticide sprays per season likely was not economically justified. Our work demonstrates how the FAW invasion has altered pest management regimes in Yunnan's maize crop, deepening farmers' pesticide dependency, and potentially exacerbating its burden on household budgets. Sustainable pest management schemes urgently need to be devised for smallholder maize systems in China and across the FAW invaded range.

Problem perceived by the maize growers in adoption of maize production technology in Saharsa district of Bihar

Problem perceived by the maize growers in adoption of maize production technology in Saharsa district of Bihar