Maintenance Of Gambling Behaviour Research Articles

Early Detection of Gambling Among At-Risk Adolescents. Validation of EDGAR-A Scale

Despite the fact that minors have prohibited access to commercial gambling, and legislation trying to constrain gambling, an important proportion declares that they have bet either online, or by illegally entering gambling venues. This situation highlights the need to implement selective prevention programs that requires assessment tools to identify vulnerable groups. This paper aims to design and validate a scale of evaluation for the psycho-social characteristics that predict onset and maintenance of gambling behavior among adolescents. 2,716 students of Secondary Education, 15.12 years (± 1.03) answered a frequency, intensity and problematic gambling questionnaire and a scale to evaluate risk profiles. The resulting scale is compounded by 26 items classified in 4 sub-scales: Accessibility, Risk Perception, Normative Perception and Parental Attitudes. Internal consistency coefficients were: 0.668, 0.728, 0.746 and 0.818 respectively, and 0.811 for the total scale. Results offer a robust support on the structural validity and internal consistency of the Early Detection of Gambling among At-Risk Adolescents (EDGAR-A) Scale, a useful tool for the design and assessment of effective preventive interventions.

Gambling Harm as a Global Public Health Concern: A Mixed Method Investigation of Trends in Wales

Background: Recent research evidence has suggested that gambling is a public health concern. A number of studies report the association between gambling activity and increased instances of various other harms, including substance misuse and psychological disorders. In parallel to alcohol misuse, it is also becoming clear that gambling related harm is more of a continuum of harm, as opposed to traditionally accepted categorisations of gambling behavior: safe and responsible or “problem” and harmful. Previous effective treatment models for alcohol misuse have considered a public health approach to develop interventions. As such, the current research seeks to use a public health approach to both investigate the extent of gambling harm across Wales, and to identify upstream predictors of harm to inform future interventions.Method: A triangulation of data collection methods was utilized across Wales, UK. Two hundred and forty-eight participants completed a quantitative survey relating to gambling behavior and related harm, which included the Problem Severity Gambling Index, the Gambling Commission measure of frequency, The Gambling Motives Questionnaire and the Fast Alcohol Screening tool. Ninety-eight of these participants completed a qualitative subsection. Structured interviews were conducted with 20 individuals from 11 service providers. Semi-structured interviews were conducted for the five case studies of individuals who had previously sought help for gambling. The geographical density and distribution of Licensed Gambling Outlets was also mapped in local areas.Results: The findings provide further evidence of a continuum of gambling related harm. Twenty seven percent of survey participants demonstrate some indicators of risk of gambling harm. Social, cultural and environmental contexts play a role in initiation and maintenance of gambling behavior and the subsequent related harm. Accounts from individuals corroborated the quantitative findings.Conclusions: Findings from this Welsh sample are in line with and add support to the growing international research evidence that gambling harms are a universal issue that cross cultures. It is clear that action is needed by legislators at a policy level and that broadening the focus of intervention to a public health level is necessary to develop effective strategies for harm reduction.

The temporal relationship between gambling related beliefs and gambling behaviour: a prospective study using the theory of planned behaviour

The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) has been successfully employed to investigate the role of gambling-related beliefs in the maintenance of gambling behaviour. However, there is a lack of research that examines the temporal relationships between the TPB predictor variables and gambling behaviour. Thus, the current study examines the utility of expectancies, normative beliefs, perceived behaviour control and gambling intentions in predicting gambling frequency, as assessed 12 months later. In addition, these gambling-related beliefs were reassessed at the 12-month follow-up survey to examine their stability and relationships with gambling behaviour. A total of 805 Australian adults, recruited via an online research panel, completed the baseline and follow-up online survey. Consistent with expectations, gambling-related beliefs explained gambling intentions and intentions predicted Wave 2 gambling frequency, after controlling Wave 1 gambling frequency. In relation to the stability of gambling-related beliefs, the Wave 2 measures explained additional variance in the Wave 2 gambling behaviour, although the type of beliefs associated with Wave 2 gambling frequency and problem gambling severity differed. These findings provide support for the notion that the perceived benefits of gambling and beliefs in skill are important areas to target in preventative and problem gambling initiatives.

Czech gamblers view on luck as the cause of uncontrollable events

The belief in deterministic luck is considered to be one of the factors contributing to maintenance of gambling behavior. This belief was found to be stronger during the gamble situation in problematic gamblers than non-problematic. The present study deals with the difference in luck attribution between the Czech gamblers and the control group. The main goal was to find out whether the difference between belief in luck is also present in non-gamble situation. A questionnaire containing the Belief in luck and luckiness scale and 14 stories of uncontrollable events was administered to 30 pathological gamblers and 30 matched participant (by age, education, gender and nationality), who did not play any hazard games regularly. In uncontrollable events participants chose from non-material causes (luck, chance, god, destiny) one they believed to be the best fit. Results have shown a statistically significant difference between gamblers and control group in the way of attributing the causes. Control group has chosen significantly more “chance” option meanwhile gamblers opted for luck, God and destiny. There was no statistically significant difference in explicitly formulated belief in luck. It seems that the stronger casual attribution of luck, god and destiny in pathological gamblers compared to non-gamblers are not restricted only to gaming situations. Rather we can find it in other uncontrollable events as well. The absence of the difference between patients and control group in explicit belief in luck measured by questionnaire could be pointing to the stronger effect of the treatment for explicit belief than for more subtle causal attributing.Disclosure of interestThe authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

Joueurs de machines à sous dans une population française : étude de la dépression, de l’alexithymie et de la recherche de sensations

There are a multitude of factors implied in the acquisition, the development and the maintenance of gambling behavior. Among them, sensation seeking occupies an important place. Zuckerman originally suggested a relationship between sensation seeking and gambling. However, studies in this area have provided heterogeneous results. To explain these discrepancies, Zuckerman emphasized the fact that the type of gambling may be a crucial factor in the relationship with sensation seeking. Nevertheless, few studies have evaluated the link between the different types of gambling and problem behaviors. Furthermore, few studies were interested specifically on slot machines. While recent research has found high-levels of alexithymia in individuals with substance use and eating disorders only two studies have investigated the relationship between alexithymia and pathological gambling. Thus, these studies were focused on students. It is therefore important to study alexithymia in adult gamblers. Empirical data has shown that alexithymia levels may be influenced by negative mood states, especially depression. Some studies have found a positive correlation between alexithymia and depression scores, particularly in people with addictive behaviours. Nevertheless, studies found heterogeneous results. The main objective of this research was to evaluate scores on sensation seeking, alexithymia and depression (and the link between those variables) in gamblers of slot machines. Thus, slot machines gamblers were selected in the casino of Enghien-les-Bains, which is Paris nearest casino. Among them one distinguishes: regular gamblers ( n = 45) from which were extracted pathological gamblers ( n = 27), and occasional gamblers ( n = 19). The South Oaks Gambling Screen and the criteria of the DSM-IV were used to measure the intensity of gambling behavior; sensation seeking was evaluated by the Sensation Seeking Scale form V; alexithymia by the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20) and the depression by the Beck Depression Inventory. No differences appeared significant between the three groups of gamblers for the sensation seeking scores. Pathological gamblers obtained higher alexithymia scores than occasional gamblers. Nevertheless, these findings didn’t remain stable when controlling for the effect of depression. Among pathological gamblers, the BDI score is positively correlated to the ‘difficulty identifying feelings’ factor. This result is consistent with the literature, which shows that alexithymia is closely related to depression in addictive behaviors. Indeed, the ‘difficulty identifying feelings’ factor seems to be explained by depression severity. These results suggest that the emotional component of alexithymia would be thymo-dependent, whereas the cognitive component would be independent and constitute a stable clinical feature. Pathological gamblers who play slot machine are low sensation seekers who shun the more dramatic and extraverted form of sensation seeking. They play to reduce or avoid unpleasant emotional states like depression. Pathological gambling could therefore be in part a maladaptive coping strategy to deal with affective disturbances; the game may function as a self-medication to treat emotional states, which the gambler finds no other way of treating. According to previous studies, slot machine gambling is referred to as ‘escape’ gambling, where gamblers may dissociate.

The Psychology of the Fruit Machine: The Role of Structural Characteristics (Revisited)

Over the past three decades, a number of authors have examined the role of structural characteristics as they appear to be important in the acquisition, development and maintenance of gambling behaviour. Furthermore, it has been argued that fruit machine gambling features more gambling-inducing structural characteristics than all other forms of gambling. However, it is clear that previous overviews in this area are now out of date in a number of key areas. This paper therefore reviews the changes in structural characteristics of the fruit machine over the last decade. Important changes in the structural characteristics of fruit machines will be discussed focusing on the small changes to established structural characteristics (e.g., the near miss, sound effects, light effects, colour effects, event frequencies etc.) as well as a more speculative examination of new and contemporary characteristics such as the importance of “features” and the psychology of familiarity.

The psychology of music in gambling environments: An observational research note

Effects of the listening context on responses to music largely have been neglected despite the prevalence of music in our everyday lives. Furthermore, there has been no research on the role of music in gambling environments (e.g., casinos, amusement arcades) despite gambling's increased popularity as a leisure pursuit. An exploratory observational study in gambling arcades was carried out to investigate (i) how music is used as background music in amusement arcades, and (ii) how slot machines utilize music in their design. Results indicated that arcades often have music that caters for their customer demographics and that this may influence gambling behaviour. Furthermore, music from the slot machine itself appears to produce important impression formations about the machine (i.e., quality of the machine, familiarity, distinctiveness, and the sound of winning). It is suggested that music (whether it is in the gambling environment or in the activity itself) has the potential to be important in the acquisition, development, and maintenance of gambling behaviour. Some preliminary ideas and hypotheses to be tested are offered.

The danger of over‐explanation in psychological research: A reply to Griffiths

According to Griffiths (1999), monetary rewards may only play a limited role in the maintenance of gambling behaviour. Many other factors, including near‐misses, excitement, and social rewards should be taken into account when trying to explain persistent gambling. In this paper, it is argued that this eclectic (biopsychosocial) approach needs to be applied with caution. This is because of the absence of clear operational definitions of these other reinforcers (e.g. ‘near‐misses’, social rewards); the fact that these reinforcers are likely to be related to the receipt or anticipation of monetary rewards (Walker, 1992); and the danger of over‐explanation. If reinforcers can be direct or indirect, monetary or non‐monetary, are there any aspects of gambling (apart from clear losses) which are not reinforcing?

The role of subjective mood states in the maintenance of fruit machine gambling behaviour

Explanations involving the etiology of pathological gambling have tended to emphasize psychosocial factors. However, the possibility that psychobiological factors are important should not be ruled out. Two currently researched psychobiological approaches to gambling involve the role of (i) arousal and (ii) depression. A study analyzing the subjective mood variables of 60 gamblers (44 males and 16 females; mean age 23.4 years) using self report measures was carried out in an attempt to identify which mood states are critical to gambling maintenance. Results indicated that regular and pathological gamblers experienced more depressive moods before playing and that regular and pathological gamblers experienced significantly more excitement during gambling than non regular gamblers. These results are discussed in relation to contemporary literature regarding the roles of arousal and depression in the maintenance of gambling behaviour.

Adolescent Gambling: An Observational Pilot Study

To date there has been little systematic research into the acquisition, development and maintenance of gambling behaviour in adolescence (Griffiths, 1989) and even less research has taken place in field settings. The reported study contains the findings of a 4-hr. midday monitoring session of an amusement arcade in Teignmouth (a seaside town in the southwest of England), examining its clientele using a nonparticipant observation merhodology . At the time of the study the arcade contained 149 gaming machines [I01 slot (fruit) machines and 48 other kinds of gaming machines, e.g., video games] and were played upon by 16 to 54 adults and 21 to 82 children/adolescents as recorded at regular half-hour intervals. The main findings were (a) adolescents under 18 years of age accounted for about two-thirds of the clientele, (b) two-thirds of the adolescent clientele were male, (c) girls tended to play next to each other in pairs, (d) very young children, i.e., under 7 yr. of age, tended to play nongambling games watched by parents, (e) there were a number of small adolescent groups of 2 to 4 boys, about four groups per individual unit, who tended to play on video-game machines, (f) outnumbered boys on the cheaper 1 pence and 2 pence stake machines by approximately 4:1, (g) boys outnumbered girls on more expensive 10 pence stake machines by approximately 9:2, and (h) unsupervised children and young adolescents tended to play the 10 pence stake fruit machines or video games. These results suggest that gambling is a popular activity for adolescents, particularly among boys, and that many parents actually facilitate their own children's gambling behaviour. However, much research s t d needs to be carried out into the psychology and sociology of adolescent gambling behaviour.

The acquisition, development, and maintenance of fruit machine gambling in adolescents

In the U.K., the major commercial gambling activity in adolescents is the playing of slot machines (commonly known as "fruit machines"). Over the past few years, the negative effects of "fruit machine addiction" have been reported by various helping organizations (e.g. Gamblers Anonymous) and the national press, including allegations of attempted murder, suicide and prostitution as well as a wider incidence of petty crime.Fifty adolescent fruit machine players from a 'user population' participated in a face-to-face interview and questionnaire study examining factors in the acquisition, development and maintenance of gambling behaviour. Nine adolescent males were deemed to be pathological gamblers as measured by the American Psychiatric Association DSM-III-R diagnostic criteria, and a number of serious consequences were reported including gambling debts, truancy and stealing.

Anxiety and/or depression in the pathogenesis of addictive gambling.

The Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and the Beck Depression Inventory were administered to 75 pathological gamblers seeking behavioral treatment, to investigate the hypothesis that anxiety and depression were important determinants in the maintenance of gambling behavior. Further, subgroups of "pure" poker-machine and "pure" horse-race gamblers were isolated and compared to determine whether differences existed between groups of individuals who selected different forms of gambling. Although the desire to win money was given as the main reason for participation, need for money played a less significant role in precipitating further gambling. Rather, the concept that pathological gambling is a behavioral stress reaction received some support. As a group pathological gamblers had moderate levels of depression. State or trait anxiety scores were no different from Spielberger's normative sample of neuropsychiatric patients, but were higher than those of college students. No significant differences were found between the poker-machine and horse-race gambling subgroups on age, years gambling, years of uncontrolled gambling, state and trait anxiety, or depression. It was suggested that environmental factors are of importance in determining the form of gambling selected, but differences between these subgroups on other psychological dimensions could not be excluded on the basis of the present study.

Plasma endorphin levels in pathological gambling

Despite its formal definition as a disorder of impulse control, pathological gambling has come under the generic label of addictive disorders with subjective excitement and physiological arousal as the major motivating factor. Individual differences in autonomic/cortical arousability in interaction with irregular schedules of reinforcement have been postulated to be important determinant factors in the pathogenesis of pathological gambling (Anderson & Brown, 1984). Mood disturbances and cross-addictions are frequently observed in pathological gamblers seeking treatment and the behavior has also been conceptualized as a defense against depression and anxiety. Recently the role of endorphins has been implicated in mood disturbances associated with psychiatric states and in addictive processes; the latter through their euphorogenic or reward-transmitting properties in accordance with operant and classical conditioning principles. The hypothesis that the etiology or maintenance of gambling behavior is related to endorphin activity was investigated in this study. Using radioimmunoassay techniques, baseline B-endorphin plasma levels were measured in a sample of 39 pathological gamblers seeking treatment and 16 male and 19 female non-gambling healthy control subjects. In addition, B-endorphin reactivity to gambling activity was measured in a subgroup of 13 horse-race gamblers. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual III criteria for diagnosis were used. Written consent was obtained. Blood samples were drawn at the same time of day for each subject. The experimental procedure consisted of taking baseline blood samples at 11 a.m. following which subjects were instructed to place a bet sufficient to “excite” them on a horse-race. A subsequent blood sample was taken at 2 p.m., five minutes after subjects listened to the race broadcast on radio. Heart rate measures and a visual analogue scale rating excitement, tension and urge to gamble were also administered immediately before and after the race broadcast. Results showed that as a group pathological gamblers did not differ from controls on baseline B-endorphin levels. But differentiating gamblers according to type of gambling activity revealed horserace addicts to have significantly lower baseline levels as compared to poker-machine players and controls. This finding provides empirical evidence for the hypothesis that distinct subgroups of gamblers exist and raises the corollary that different etiological factors may characterize each subgroup. That B-endorphin levels did not increase in response to gambling was explained by the failure of the relatively small bet size to generate high arousal.

Evaluation of the “Illusion of Control”: Type of Feedback, Outcome Sequence, and Number of Trials Among Regular and Occasional Gamblers

Summary Within the framework of Langer's theory of the “illusion of control,” three experiments were conducted in order to clarify factors affecting the acquisition and maintenance of gambling behavior. The first (n = 150) evaluated the effect of partial and continuous feedback on the perception of control in different sequences of the outcomes. The second (n = 64) assessed the type of feedback and the number of trials as facilitating factors of the illusion of control. The third (n = 21) used regular gamblers in order to evaluate the effect of sequence of outcomes. The results indicate that Ss generally did not report an illusion of control towards the experimental task. These conclusions do not replicate Langer's findings which showed that under certain conditions S s attribute to their personal skills the outcomes of the risky task of gambling.

Illusion of Control: Effects of Participation and Involvement

Summary Among the various theories for the acquisition and retention of gambling behavior, that of the illusion of control states that in a situation involving chance people behave as they would in a situation involving skills: they perceive a certain amount of personal control over the outcome of the events. The present research examined the effect of participation and involvement as inductive variables of illusory control. Ninety S s were divided equally into six groups in a factorial design. The S or the experimenter threw the dice (active versus passive participation). Involvement was measured by the amount of money bet: a constant amount, a variable bet, or no money at all. A multivariate analysis of variance revealed no significant differences among groups. S s did not report an illusion of control in this situation of chance. These results cast doubt on the value of the illusion of control for explaining the acquisition and/or maintenance of gambling behavior.