Maintenance Of Diversity Research Articles

Diversity and distribution of Odonata (Insecta) larvae in a subtropical lagoon with different land uses in Veracruz, Mexico

Impacts caused to freshwater reservoirs by human activities have increased in tropical and subtropical regions in the last decades. We studied the effects of land use on the physicochemical properties of water and their effects on larval Odonata diversity in a subtropical lagoon. During 1 year, physicochemical variables were measured, and Odonata larvae were collected in 8 sites (4 in the urbane zone and 4 in the more conserved rural zone) with different land uses that cover the entire periphery of the lagoon. Physicochemically, no clustering of samples from urban and rural zones or by site was observed, rather clustering reflected temporal patterns. A total of 28 species were found and some of them showed a differential distribution between both zones, and between the 8 sites and collectings. The highest diversity was recorded in the rural zone. The site with domestic waste discharges had the lowest diversity and it showed high concentrations of nitrates and ammonium. We conclude that the effect of land use in this lagoon is still incipient on Odonata diversity. The diversion and treatment of urban waters and proper land management are recommended to ensure the maintenance of Odonata diversity.

Nascent evolution of recombination rate differences as a consequence of chromosomal rearrangements.

Reshuffling of genetic variation occurs both by independent assortment of chromosomes and by homologous recombination. Such reshuffling can generate novel allele combinations and break linkage between advantageous and deleterious variants which increases both the potential and the efficacy of natural selection. Here we used high-density linkage maps to characterize global and regional recombination rate variation in two populations of the wood white butterfly (Leptidea sinapis) that differ considerably in their karyotype as a consequence of at least 27 chromosome fissions and fusions. The recombination data were compared to estimates of genetic diversity and measures of selection to assess the relationship between chromosomal rearrangements, crossing over, maintenance of genetic diversity and adaptation. Our data show that the recombination rate is influenced by both chromosome size and number, but that the difference in the number of crossovers between karyotypes is reduced as a consequence of a higher frequency of double crossovers in larger chromosomes. As expected from effects of selection on linked sites, we observed an overall positive association between recombination rate and genetic diversity in both populations. Our results also revealed a significant effect of chromosomal rearrangements on the rate of intergenic diversity change between populations, but limited effects on polymorphisms in coding sequence. We conclude that chromosomal rearrangements can have considerable effects on the recombination landscape and consequently influence both maintenance of genetic diversity and efficiency of selection in natural populations.

The Evolutionary Ecology of Plant Chemical Defenses: From Molecules to Communities

Classic theory relates herbivore pressure to the ecology and evolution of plant defenses. Here, we summarize current trends in the study of plant–herbivore interactions and how they shape the evolution of plant chemical defenses, host choice, and community composition and diversity. Inter- and intraspecific variation in defense investment is driven by resource availability. The evolution of defenses at deeper nodes of plant phylogeny is conserved, yet defenses are highly labile at the tips. On an ecological timescale, while greater specialization of tropical herbivores enhances local diversity by reducing the performance of plants with similar defenses, in temperate ecosystems with more generalist herbivores, rare defense profiles are at a disadvantage. On an evolutionary timescale, host choice by herbivores is largely determined by plant defenses rather than host phylogeny, leading to evolutionary tracking by herbivores rather than cocladogenesis. The interplay between plants and herbivores shapes both the origin and maintenance of diversity.

Sympatric primate seed dispersers and predators jointly contribute to plant diversity in a subtropical forest.

Mutualistic and antagonistic plant-animal interactions differentially contribute to the maintenance of species diversity in ecological communities. Although both seed dispersal and predation by fruit-eating animals are recognized as important drivers of plant population dynamics, the mechanisms underlying how seed dispersers and predators jointly affect plant diversity remain largely unexplored. Based on mediating roles of seed size and species abundance, we investigated the effects of seed dispersal and predation by two sympatric primates (Nomascus concolor and Trachypithecus crepusculus) on local plant recruitment in a subtropical forest of China. Over a 26month period, we confirmed that these primates were functionally distinct: gibbons were legitimate seed dispersers who dispersed seeds of 44 plant species, while langurs were primarily seed predators who destroyed seeds of 48 plant species. Gibbons dispersed medium-seeded species more effectively than small- and large-seeded species, and dispersed more seeds of rare species than common and dominant species. Langurs showed a similar predation rate across different sizes of seeds, but destroyed a large number of seeds from common species. Due to gut passage effects, gibbons significantly shortened the duration of seed germination for 58% of the dispersed species; however, for 54% of species, seed germination rates were reduced significantly. Our study underlined the contrasting contributions of two primate species to local plant recruitment processes. By dispersing rare species and destroying the seeds of common species, both primates might jointly maintain plant species diversity. To maintain healthy ecosystems, the conservation of mammals that play critical functional roles needs to receive further attention.

Flood pulses and fish species coexistence in tropical rivers - a theoretical food web model

AbstractFreshwater fish diversity reaches its zenith in large tropical rivers. Although the origins of this diversity have been relatively well studied, the mechanisms that maintain high fish diversity in tropical rivers remain largely unknown. It has been hypothesized that the annual flood pulse, a perennial feature of many lowland rivers in the tropics, reduces competitive exclusion and consequently promotes species coexistence. During the high-water season, superabundant allochthonous resources and relatively low fish density may reduce intra- and interspecific competition. During the low-water season on the other hand, resource availability is low and predation pressure high, offsetting competitive differences between species and controlling fish population sizes. Here, we tested the potential role of these mechanisms for species coexistence using a food web model where fish species exhibit strong differences in competition strength and compete for finite resources. We simulated fish interactions when a regular flood pulse was either present or absent. We found that extinction rates in the simulations without an annual flood pulse were consistently higher when compared to those with a flood pulse, indicating more species could coexist when a regular annual flood pulse is present. If the flood pulse is a relevant mechanism for fish species coexistence, as our model results suggest, then flood pulse changes could result in species extinctions and lower fish diversity. Deforestation, climate change, and the construction of large hydropower dams are current drivers of hydrological change across the tropics, increasing the urgency to understand the role of natural flooding regimes for the maintenance of tropical freshwater fish diversity.

Mechanisms that can cause population decline under heavily skewed male-biased adult sex ratios.

While adult sex ratio (ASR) is a crucial component for population management, there is still a limited understanding of how its fluctuation affects population dynamics. To demonstrate mechanisms that hinder population growth under a biased ASR, we examined changes in reproductive success with ASR using a decapod crustacean exposed to female-selective harvesting. We examined the effect of ASR on the spawning success of females. A laboratory experiment showed that the number of eggs carried by females decreased as the proportion of males in the mating groups increased. Although the same result was not observed in data collected over 25 years in the wild, the negative effect of ASR was suggested when success in carrying eggs was considered as a spawning success. These results indicate that a surplus of males results in females failing to carry eggs, probably due to sexual coercion, and the negative effect of ASR can be detected at the population level only when the bias increases because failure in spawning success occurs in part of population. We experimentally examined how male-biased sex ratios affected the maintenance of genetic diversity in a population. The diversity of paternity in a clutch increased with the number of candidate fathers. However, over 50% of a clutch was fertilised by a single male regardless of the sex ratio, and the degree of diversity was less than half of the highest diversity expected in each mating group. We also experimentally examined the mating ability of males during the breeding season. The experiment showed that multiple mating by males could not compensate for the risk that their genotypes would be lost when multiple males competed for one female. These results suggest that a male-biased ASR could trigger a decline of genetic diversity in a population. We show that ASR skewed by female-selective harvesting decreases reproductive success not only of males that have few mating opportunities but also of females. We discuss that we may still underestimate the significance of ASR on population persistence due to the difficulty of revealing the effect of ASR.

Negative frequency dependent selection unites ecology and evolution.

From genes to communities, understanding how diversity is maintained remains a fundamental question in biology. One challenging to identify, yet potentially ubiquitous, mechanism for the maintenance of diversity is negative frequency dependent selection (NFDS), which occurs when entities (e.g., genotypes, life history strategies, species) experience a per capita reduction in fitness with increases in relative abundance. Because NFDS allows rare entities to increase in frequency while preventing abundant entities from excluding others, we posit that negative frequency dependent selection plays a central role in the maintenance of diversity. In this review, we relate NFDS to coexistence, identify mechanisms of NFDS (e.g., mutualism, predation, parasitism), review strategies for identifying NFDS, and distinguish NFDS from other mechanisms of coexistence (e.g., storage effects, fluctuating selection). We also emphasize that NFDS is a key place where ecology and evolution intersect. Specifically, there are many examples of frequency dependent processes in ecology, but fewer cases that link this process to selection. Similarly, there are many examples of selection in evolution, but fewer cases that link changes in trait values to negative frequency dependence. Bridging these two well-developed fields of ecology and evolution will allow for mechanistic insights into the maintenance of diversity at multiple levels.

Spatial and Temporal Dynamics of Rangeland Ecosystem Services Across the Shazand Watershed, Iran

Human interventions and global environmental changes are increasing and threaten ecosystem services (ES) worldwide. Managing ES is a challenging task; it is essential to understand the temporal and spatial distribution of ES and the benefits derived by a human. However, ES variability in time and space has yet to be studied. Therefore, the current study investigates spatiotemporal variations of different ES indicators, individually and in combination, in the Shazand Watershed across three time periods: 1998, 2008, and 2016. Five indicators were selected to assess different dimensions of ES, including plant production, water provision, soil stability, maintenance of habitats and genetic diversity for plant and animal nurseries and reproduction, and recreation potential. We then used multiresolution segmentation to create a spatial composite indicator measuring the integration of the study indicators. SCI was used to describe spatiotemporal variations of ES through time at the subwatershed level. The results indicated that individual ES indicators display spatial variations across space and time. Moreover, comparing the spatial composite indicator across periods showed that all 24 subwatersheds could not supply more ES. However, the areas located in the central and the western part of the watershed appeared to have better ES conditions. According to the results, revising the current management plans and allocating environmental funding would benefit these areas. The results are applicable for future spatial planning of sustainable ecological conservation strategies for the Shazand Watershed and similar regions.

Shift in fungal communities associated with Pinus sylvestris stands affected by root rot

Introduction
 Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) covers large areas in European regions with significant economic importance to Ukrainian forest industry. Root rot caused by the wood-decay fungus Heterobasidion annosum damages both below- and above-ground parts of Scots pines. The disease progress is likely to be affected by reshaping in the forest such as soil properties, vegetation composition, and tree age. These changes are apparently followed up by paralleled shifts in fungal community composition on forest soil with potential feedback on ecosystem functioning.
 The objective of the study was to screen fungal groups associated with the root system of P. sylvestris in stands affected by H.annosum s.s. to better understand the pathogenesis and development of root rot infection, as well as to recognize whether root size and disease severity affect diversity of fungi of the root system in the forest-steppe conditions of Ukraine. The additional object was to study other resident microflora of P. sylvestris root infested by H.annosum s.s. to find out whether the H. annosum s.s. impacts the overall diversity of other fungi.
 Materials and Methods
 The field study was carried out in 2018–2020. Field study sites were pure pine forest stands located in Kharkiv region (compartment 126, subcompartment 7, tract Bugri, Kharkiv Forest Research Station). Wood core and root samples from P. sylvestris were collected from the five infected (50–100 m apart from each other) and five non-infected trees (up to 500 m apart from the infested area and 50–100 m apart from each other). Wood and root samples were used for fungal culturing and direct sequencing using ITS1F and ITS4 primers.
 Results
 In the present study, we tried to evaluate fungal communities across diseased Pinus sylvestris stands and investigated correlations between taxonomic composition and forest health. Not surprisingly, root rot infestation had a significant effect on root-associated fungal abundance and diversity. During disease development, the root-associated fungal community shifted in composition from dominance by saprotrophic fungi to ectomycorrhizal and pathogenic fungal species. Our results suggested that maintenance of functional diversity in the root-associated fungal community may sustain long-term forest health or even root rot resistance to some extent by retaining a capacity for symbiosis-driven recycling of organic nutrients; however, this hypothesis is necessary to carefully examine and prove further.
 Conclusions
 Fungal culturing from 10 surface-sterilized wood cores resulted in 21 fungal cultures, 2.1 per wood segment. Direct sequencing from 40 surface-sterilized segments of lateral roots resulted in 247 fungal sequences or 6.2 per root segment on average. The most dominant fungi from the infested trees of Pinus sylvestris were Dactylonectria macrodidyma (4.98%), Acremonium sp (4.52%), Cladosporium cladosporioides (4.07%) from Ascomycota and Heterobasidion annosum s.s. (4.07%) from Basidiomycota, while for non-infested group Unidentified Ascomycota175244 (13.19%), Penicillium spinulosum (9.89%), Acremonium sp. (8.79%), Bionectriaceae sp. (8.79%) were the most common.
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The Increasing Role of Short-Term Sperm Storage and Cryopreservation in Conserving Threatened Amphibian Species.

Multidisciplinary approaches to conserve threatened species are required to curb biodiversity loss. Globally, amphibians are facing the most severe declines of any vertebrate class. In response, conservation breeding programs have been established in a growing number of amphibian species as a safeguard against further extinction. One of the main challenges to the long-term success of conservation breeding programs is the maintenance of genetic diversity, which, if lost, poses threats to the viability and adaptive potential of at-risk populations. Integrating reproductive technologies into conservation breeding programs can greatly assist genetic management and facilitate genetic exchange between captive and wild populations, as well as reinvigorate genetic diversity from expired genotypes. The generation of offspring produced via assisted fertilisation using frozen-thawed sperm has been achieved in a small but growing number of amphibian species and is poised to be a valuable tool for the genetic management of many more threatened species globally. This review discusses the role of sperm storage in amphibian conservation, presents the state of current technologies for the short-term cold storage and cryopreservation of amphibian sperm, and discusses the generation of cryo-derived offspring.

Threats from weather events, urbanization and resilience: A case study of a coastal geography in India

ABSTRACT Urbanized coastal geographies with high population density but with low adaptive capacity are more exposed to threats of both rapid and slow onset weather events. Altered coasts along the Bay of Bengal is one such geography where general urbanization trend coupled with new policy driven tourism activity promotion is increasing exposure to frequent and intense disaster events. Current study takes a deeper dive into a 17 km long coastal stretch along Digha-Shankarpur-Mandarmoni in the Bay of Bengal in India. Community consultation using questionnaire-based survey is the primary source of evidence for this study. Community’s perception about threats from changing weather events and risks perceived by the coastal community engaged in various livelihood categories have been used to assess their resilience status, awareness of various local adaptive interventions and measures undertaken for local resilience building. With already predominant traditional agricultural and fisheries practices, promotion of tourism is altering the natural ecosystem faster through hard infrastructure expansion. The prevalent threats from weather events in the region lead to the loss of ecosystem services with adverse impacts on the communities whose livelihood are closely linked to the ecosystem service flows. In this context, how to build the resilience is the major research question. Nine impact indicators are used to assess risk using qualitative and quantitative methods. The analysis shows that individual and the community scale resilience increases with livelihood diversification, inclusive community engagement, polycentric governance structure, maintenance of diversity in ecosystem service flows, access to science based information on threats and opportunities, inclusion of local knowledge available with the communities in various livelihood categories for designing appropriate social protection measures. The study comes up with policy recommendations. It is important to avoid lack of long-term vision in the policies, enhance local institutional capacity through sector specific associations to deal with multiple threats quickly, overcome lack of awareness about preventive and soft adaptation measures, restoration actions, increase interaction and involvement of local stakeholders for local knowledge. Additionally, it is an urgent need to involve multiple even if sometimes conflicting scientific views on solutions vis-à-vis community wisdom for strengthening resilience.

Widespread long-term declines of littoral areas in protected and unprotected Czech fishponds

Fishponds play a key role in current pondscapes in many developed countries. They provide multiple ecosystem services affected by trade-offs mediated by different types of fishpond management. Many fishponds were impacted by the shift towards more intensive aquaculture and widespread eutrophication in the 20th century. These changes can undermine various ecosystem functions including the maintenance of aquatic and riparian biodiversity in the littoral areas, but their extent is not well documented. Here we use aerial photographs to investigate the changes of littoral areas of 46 protected and 20 unprotected fishponds in the Czech Republic between the years 1950 and 2019. Protected fishponds had initially larger littoral areas than the unprotected ones, and the difference persisted over time. However, littoral areas decreased markedly in 38 protected (mean area decrease by 22.5%) and all unprotected (mean area decrease by 16%) fishpond categories, especially during the second half of the 20th century. Within protected fishponds, the trend was unaffected by the reserve establishment year, fishpond area and conservation target. Our results suggests that legal protection did not prevent the initial catastrophic loss of littoral areas and facilitated at most minor recovery in the last two decades, with negative implications for long-term maintenance of aquatic diversity. We attribute the losses of fishpond littoral areas to high fish stocks and eutrophication resulting from additional feeding, pond manuring, and ongoing nutrient inputs from the pond catchments. We conclude that littoral areas of fishponds urgently need effective protection. This would require a paradigm shift towards less intensive fish stock management, more frequent summer drainage, and effective reduction of all nutrient inputs to increase the water quality. Such measures could help recover the littoral areas and the associated biota.

Fragmentation Analysis of Capisaan Surface Karst Landscape through Changes in Land Use and Land Cover using FRAGSTATS

Changes in land cover mainly brought by humans could alter how landscapes function, which has an impact on the variety and health of the local biota. This study examined the fragmentation shifts of the Capisaan Cave System surface landscape by looking at changes in land use and land cover using Landsat images, ArcGIS and Google Earth imageries to generate classified land covers for the years 2001, 2005, 2010, 2016 and 2019. Fragmentation was analyzed through FRAGSTATS with forest; shrubland and orchard (SO); and agriculture and clearing (AC) as class types. Results showed that the most significant change in the landscape was in the year 2010 with AC significantly increasing its area and aggregation causing other class types to exhibit more fragmentation. Forest and SO covers displayed huge losses indicated by decreased class area and average size of patches accompanied by a more subdivided landscape shown by their increased number of patches. Although forest and SO slightly recovered in the class area in 2016, values were far from recovering to 2001 values. FRAGSTATS data suggest lowering biodiversity values and paying importance to reserve size in the maintenance of species diversity. The edge effect as a result of class and landscape fragmentation in forest vegetation might have been reduced at the landscape level as indicated by the reduced fractal dimension, as well as sustaining patch cohesion and increased clumpiness. However, abatement of edge effect could be easily limited and reversed if the reduction of the total area of forest available in the landscape continues.

Revision of the generic classification of pike cichlids using an integrative phylogenetic approach (Cichlidae: tribe Geophagini: subtribe Crenicichlina)

AbstractPike cichlids form the largest clade of Neotropical cichlids, with over 100 species presently classified in two genera: Crenicichla (93 species widespread in rivers of South America east of the Andes) and Teleocichla (nine rheophilic Amazonian species). Here, we combined a new dataset of 216 morphological characters with molecular data compiled from published sources, comprising 74 terminal taxa of pike cichlids (68 out of 102 valid species, plus four putative new species), and performed phylogenetic analyses using maximum likelihood, Bayesian inference, and parsimony. Based on a synthesis of our results and previous phylogenies, we propose a new classification in which the clade including all pike cichlids is elevated to the rank of subtribe (Crenicichlina) and the genus Crenicichla is redefined, including three subgenera: Crenicichla (monotypic with the type species), Batrachops (resurected as subgenus), and Lacustria (new subgenus). Teleocichla is maintained as a valid genus and four new genera are proposed: Wallaciia, Saxatilia, Hemeraia, and Lugubria. Our results on character mapping support the hypothesis that resource partitioning in environments with fast-flowing water and rocky beds might have played a role in the origin or maintenance of the great diversity of pike cichlids, resulting in parallel evolution of similar ecomorphs.

Partitioning beta diversity of dry and hot valley vegetation in the Nujiang River in Southwest China

The formation and continued maintenance of beta diversity are essential factors contributing to the effective conservation of plant community biodiversity and sustainable development of ecosystem functions. While it is widely acknowledged that two different patterns, including turnover and nestedness, strongly influence plant community beta diversity, their relative importance in the unique dry and hot valleys of Southwest China is yet to be fully understood. For this study, we established a 100 km belt transect in the Nujiang dry and hot valley of Southwest China and conducted community investigations. The calculations of species and phylogenetic beta diversity composition patterns allowed us to explore the relative importance of environmental and dispersal limitations in terms of their contributions to beta diversity. The findings indicated that in the Nujiang dry and hot valley of Northwest Yunnan, species and phylogenetic beta diversity in the plant communities were mainly composed of the turnover component. The values of phylogenetic beta diversity and its turnover components were lower than those of species beta diversity. Both environmental and dispersal limitations played a role in partitioning beta diversity in the region, with environmental limitations being more dominant than dispersal limitations. The analysis of specific environmental factors revealed that climate factors, such as mean annual precipitation and Hargreaves reference evaporation, and soil factors, such as pH, were the primary drivers of species and phylogenetic beta diversity in the region. In addition, we observed that various limiting environmental factors related to the growth and development of different life forms existed within the dry and hot valley communities. The study highlighted the potential benefits of establishing conservation reserves featuring multiple dominant shrub species in the Nujiang dry and hot valley of Southwest China for the protection of the vegetation. The findings demonstrated that environmental factors, particularly hydrothermal conditions, played a significant role in constraining the maintenance of beta diversity in plant communities in the dry and hot valley region at a regional scale, given the geological history and environmental changes that have occurred over time.

Geographical patterns and drivers of plant productivity and species diversity in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP) has three main grassland types: alpine meadow, alpine steppe, and alpine desert steppe. In this study, we asked how plant productivity and species diversity vary with altitude, longitude and latitude in alpine grasslands of the QTP. We then identified the environmental factors that drive these observed patterns of plant productivity and species diversity. We found that although plant productivity and species diversity varied greatly across large-scale longitudinal and latitudinal gradients, these changes were strongest across the longitudinal gradient. This finding indicates that moisture rather than temperature has the greatest impact on plant productivity and species diversity of the alpine grasslands in the QTP. We also found that besides soil and climate factors, partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2) also has significant effects on plant productivity, and barometric pressure and partial pressure of oxygen (pO2) also have significant effects on species diversity. Furthermore, the relationship between the biomass of grassland-dominant species and species diversity was affected by the spatial scale at which these factors were studied. Our study provides new insights into the interconnections between plant productivity and species diversity and the major factors that influence alpine grasslands. It also provides a scientific basis for the maintenance of plant diversity and ecosystem functions in hypoxic (low-oxygen) regions.

Multi‐functional characteristics of artificial forests of Caragana korshinskii Kom with different plantation ages in the hilly and sandy area of Northwest Shanxi, China

AbstractTo explore the multi‐functional characteristics of an artificial Caragana korshinskii ecosystem with different plantation ages, we assessed the differences in ecosystem multi‐functionality, the main influencing factors, and recovery dynamics over 6, 12, 18, 40, and 50 years. The results showed a binomial correlation between planting age and regulatory function (p < 0.05, R2 = 0.459), and a significant linear positive correlation between the multi‐functionality index and supporting and provisioning services. Meanwhile, a significant trinomial correlation was observed among planting age, nutrient transformation, and nutrient cycle (p < 0.01, R2 = 0.754), whereas a linear positive correlation (p < 0.05) was detected between plantation age and plant nutrient uptake, soil fertility, maintenance of plant diversity, aboveground primary productivity, and ecosystem multi‐functionality. The multi‐functionality index was significantly positively correlated with plant nutrient uptake, soil fertility, maintenance of plant diversity, and aboveground primary productivity. Plant diversity maintenance, aboveground primary productivity, and water conservation all had significant effects on the multi‐functionality index. The ecosystem multi‐functionality of C. korshinskii forests significantly increased with the increase of plantation age, and C. korshinskii establishment considerably improved plant nutrient uptake, soil fertility, maintenance of plant diversity, aboveground primary productivity, and ecosystem multi‐functionality. The water conservation function of the ecosystem peaked 12 years after planting C. korshinskii, and considerably decreased 40 years after planting, indicating that the limiting factors must be accounted for when evaluating ecosystem multi‐functionality in arid and semi‐arid areas.

Analysis of genetic variability and population structure of the Mangalica pig breed using pedigree data

The maintenance of genetic diversity (GD) and low rate of inbreeding are two main goals for any conservation programs, especially in a small, closed population which is likely to violate these conservation targets in a long run. Among the conservation programs in Hungary probably the most characterizing is that of the Mangalica pigs, which is an autochthonous Hungarian pig breed group that has been preserved for biological diversity since 1973. The current study aimed to expose the evolution of population structure, GD and inbreeding coefficient with different approaches by analysing the pedigree of these breeds in the context of the conservation program. Genealogy analysis used the data of 12,808, 2393 and 3963 Blonde, Swallow-Belly and Red breeding animals born between 1980 and 2021, respectively. The reference populations (REF2021) were defined as breeding animals born between 2016 and 2021. Pedigree completeness was more than 90% in the fifth generation and the complete generation equivalent ranged from 4.29 to 7.08 and from 6.87 to 9.73 for the whole and the reference populations (REF2021), respectively. Generation interval on average was vary from 3.06 to 3.45 years with the longer pathways to the son. Most of different estimated inbreeding coefficient showed increased trends through pedigrees except for the Kalinowski new inbreeding coefficient (FNew) which decreased in all breeds in the last decade. The mean Wright inbreeding coefficient (Fw) was low, being 5.50%, 4.30% and 7.54% for the Blonde, Swallow-Belly, and Red reference populations (REF2021), respectively. Fw showed strong correlation with FNew but low correlation with FBal while the two types of ancestral inbreeding coefficients (FBal and FKal) were ranging from moderate strong to strong correlation in every breed. Effective population size of the reference populations (REF2021) was 85.57, 76.91, and 57.56, respectively. Based on the predicted future inbreeding for the next 25 years only the Red Mangalica breed was predicted to be “Transitional” in the endangerment categories. The GD loss in these three breeds was 5.6%, 5.7% and 8.7%, respectively, in which the loss due to genetic drift was decisive compared to the unequal founder contributions. In conclusion, the three populations at the present and in the next few generations are having optimistic perspective in terms of GD. These populations should be focused on reducing new inbreeding in mating plans and the Red population need to be monitored more carefully because of its current highest GD loss, smallest effective population size and highest inbreeding coefficient.

Plant species diversity, plant use, and classification of agroforestry homegardens in southern and southwestern Ethiopia

The attainment of ever more sustainable agricultural production and reconciling agriculture with conservation are the main challenges that human beings are confronted with head-on in the future. Through expanding and enhancing agroforestry homegardens at the agricultural landscape level, biodiversity can be increased and maintained while addressing several utility values, ensuring both ecological and socioeconomic sustainability. This study was conducted in agroforestry homegardens of southern and southwestern Ethiopia, to examine plant species richness and other diversity indices, plant use, and classify and identify different types of homegardens based on their species composition and abundance. In total, 93 homegarden owners participated in the study. Two hundred and six (mean 15.44 per homegarden) different plant species (excluding weeds) that belonged to 161 genera and 66 plant families were identified across the studied sites. Fifteen species (about 7.28% of all species recorded) are endemic and threatened to Ethiopia. The overall mean plant species richness per agroforestry homegardens, mean individual density and other diversity parameters varied strongly among sites (P < 0.05). In all of the agroforestry homegardens, roots, and tubers food producing plant species tended to be more dominant (based on summed dominance ratio, SDR) than other species, except the cereal crops barley and maize. Based on cluster analysis, four groups of agroforestry homegardens were identified including, ‘small-sized, low plant diversity, barley-potato-enset-apple homegardens (Cluster-1)’; ‘intermediate-sized, taro-enset-coffee homegardens (Cluster-2)’; ‘large-sized, maize-taro-sweet potato-teff-enset homegardens (Cluster-3)’; and ‘small-sized, high plant diversity with mixed-use category homegardens (Cluster-4)’. The results also indicate that agroforestry homegardens as ecological niches are valuable for the conservation and maintenance of biological diversity both for crop genetic as well as forest tree resources, including harboring of endemic and threatened species in those human-dominated landscapes.

Genetic diversity and relationships among wild and cultivated Ficus carica L.: Usefulness of RGA markers

Disease resistance and the maintenance of genetic diversity in wild and cultivated populations are very important challenges to implement breeding program and markers assisted selection of Ficus carica L. facing climate change and its consequences. Resistance gene analogs (RGA) markers were used for variety discrimination and assessment of genetic structure and diversity of wild and cultivated Ficus carica L. species in Tunisia. The RGA markers were efficient and reliable markers for discriminating wild and cultivated fig. The high level of polymorphism (95.65) detected suggests the effectiveness of RGAs for both genetic fingerprinting and relationships assessment in wild and cultivated fig. The detected markers may represent candidate genes for disease resistance and could be further used to facilitate the identification of candidate genes and accelerate the genetic improvement of disease resistance in breeding programs of Ficus carica species.