Magnetomechanical Coupling Research Articles

Two-dimensional FePS3 nanoelectromechanical resonators with local-gate electrostatic tuning at room temperature

Nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) enabled by two-dimensional (2D) magnetic materials are promising candidates for exploring ultrasensitive detection and magnetostrictive phenomena, thanks to their high mechanical stiffness, high strength, and ultralow mass. The resonance modes of such vibrating membrane NEMS can be probed optically and also manipulated mechanically via electrostatically induced strain. Electrostatic frequency tuning of 2D magnetic NEMS resonators is, thus, an important means of investigating magneto-mechanical coupling mechanisms. Toward realizing magneto-mechanical coupled devices, we build circular drumhead iron phosphorus trisulfide (FePS3) NEMS resonators with different diameters (3–7 μm). Here, we report on experimental demonstration of tunable antiferromagnet FePS3 drumhead resonators with the highest fractional frequency tuning range up to Δf/f0 = 32%. Combining experimental results and analytical modeling of the resonance frequency scaling, we attain quantitative understanding of the elastic behavior of FePS3, including the transition from “membrane” to “plate” regime, with built-in tension (γ) ranging from 0.1 to 2 N/m. This study not only offers methods for investigating mechanical properties of ultrathin membranes of magnetic 2D materials but also provides important guidelines for designing future high-performance magnetic NEMS resonators.

Numerical Simulation of Electromagnetic Nondestructive Testing Technology for Elasto-Plastic Deformation of Ferromagnetic Materials Based on Magneto-Mechanical Coupling Effect.

A numerical tool for simulating the detection signals of electromagnetic nondestructive testing technology (ENDT) is of great significance for studying detection mechanisms and improving detection efficiency. However, the quantitative analysis methods for ENDT have not yet been sufficiently studied due to the absence of an effective constitutive model. This paper proposed a new magneto-mechanical model that can reflect the dependence of relative permeability on elasto-plastic deformation and proposed a finite element-infinite element coupling method that can replace the traditional finite element truncation boundary. The validity of the finite element-infinite element coupling method is verified by the experimental result of testing electromagnetic analysis methods using TEAM Problem 7. Then, the reliability and accuracy of the proposed model are verified by comparing the simulation results under elasto-plastic deformation with experimental results. This paper also investigates the effect of elasto-plastic deformation on the transient magnetic flux signal, a quantitative hyperbolic tangent model between Bzpp (peak-peak value of the normal component of magnetic flux signal) and elastic stress, and the exponential function relationship between Bzpp and plastic deformation is established. In addition, the difference and mechanism of a magnetic flux signal under elasto-plastic deformations are analyzed. The results reveal that the variation of the transient magnetic flux signal is mainly due to domain wall pinning, which is significantly affected by elasto-plastic deformation. The results of this paper are important for improving the accuracy of quantitative ENDT for elasto-plastic deformation.

Effect of isotropy and anisotropy: toward understanding the fracture behavior of magnetoactive elastomers

Magnetoactive elastomers (MAEs) exhibit magneto-mechanical coupling and typically contain micron-sized spherical ferromagnetic particles embedded in an elastomeric matrix. Anisotropic particle arrangement in MAEs, achieved by curing the material in a magnetic field, offers tailored and enhanced magneto-mechanical coupling compared to isotropic configurations. While tunable MAE properties such as the effective modulus and vibrational response have been relatively well studied, a thorough understanding of their fracture mechanisms, particularly in MAEs with microstructural anisotropy or composites with similar structures remains almost completely unexplored. Here, we characterize the fracture mechanisms of anisotropic and isotropic unmagnetized MAEs using experiments and simulations, focusing on the effects of spherical particles in anisotropic chain-like configurations. Specifically, we experimentally measure the fracture toughness of MAEs containing different volume fractions of particles, and with particles arranged both randomly and aligned at 0°, 45°, and 90° to the loading direction. Results show that anisotropic MAEs with particle chains aligned with the load direction can improve fracture toughness by up to almost 600%, whereas isotropic MAEs increase the fracture toughness by only 420%, compared to the pure elastomer. Scanning electron microscopy of the post-fractured surface reveals toughening mechanisms at micro-scale, such as chain waviness, particle agglomeration, and particle distribution. Simulations using a finite element method-based decoupled phase field-cohesive zone model on simplified geometries qualitatively support imaging interpretations. Overall, this work explains how internal geometry, including waviness in particle chains, chain alignment, and particle agglomerations affects fracture of MAEs and generally soft composites with chain-like geometries of spherical particles. These results have engineering applications in improving fracture properties of smart soft composites relevant to soft robotics, tunable vibration absorbers, and noise attenuators.

Vibro-acoustic behavior of a permanent magnet synchronous electrical machine: Influence of rotor displacement on Maxwell's pressures

Electric machines are often perceived as silent, yet the noise they produce has become a significant issue. This paper presents a focused approach to understanding the source of this noise, aiming to enhance machine design. Our study centers on the vibratory model of a permanent magnet synchronous electric machine. The stator and rotor components (shaft, laminations, magnets, and flexible bearings) are modeled using finite element analysis. We calculate the magnetic forces from Maxwell's pressures, which are analytically determined using the subdomain method. A key aspect of our study is the consideration of dynamic eccentricity. The paper explores how the vibratory responses of the rotor affect theses stress and how to address the complexity of magneto-mechanical coupling. Our findings reveal that the magneto-mechanical coupling of the rotor directly and significantly impacts Maxwell's pressures, and has to be taken into account to characterize the dynamics of rotor and stator.

Magnetostrictive bi-perceptive flexible sensor for tracking bend and position of human and robot hand

The sensor that simultaneously perceives bending strain and magnetic field has the potential to detect the finger bending state and hand position of the human and robot. Based on unique magneto-mechanical coupling effect of magnetostrictive materials, the proposed a bi-perceptive flexible sensor, consisting of the Co–Fe film and magnetic sensing plane coils, can realize dual information perception of strain/magnetic field through the change of magnetization state. The sensor structure and interface circuit of the sensing system are designed to provide high sensitivity and fast response, based on the input–output characteristics of the simulation model. An asynchronous multi-task deep learning method is proposed, which takes the output of the position task as the partial input of the bending state task to analyze the output information of the sensor quickly and accurately. The sensing system, integrating with the proposed model, can better predict the bending state and approach distance of human or robot hand.

Magneto-mechanical coupling in ferromagnetic shape memory alloys: Mechanical experimental investigation under magnetic field in NiMnGaCu alloy

Ferromagnetic shape memory alloys attracted increasing interest as multicaloric materials for solid state refrigeration. The most effective field coupling is achieved through the combination of the magnetic and mechanical induction of thermoelastic martensitic transformation. In the present work, we present an experimental investigation on NiMnGaCu polycrystalline cast alloy, by means of an experimental setup for compression tests in isothermal conditions under a longitudinal magnetic field. The setup has been ad hoc designed and developed specifically for this purpose. In this way, we can measure the elastocaloric and magnetocaloric effect at the same time. Moreover, the evolution of the entropy changes ΔS and the functional caloric parameters vs the magnetic field is evaluated. The application of magnetic field seems to act like a supplementary mechanical longitudinal stress. These preliminary results are fundamental to achieve a comprehensive understanding and modeling of coupled multicaloric phenomena.

Edge-selective reconfiguration in polarized lattices with magnet-enabled bistability

The signature topological feature of Maxwell lattices is their polarization, which manifests as an unbalance in stiffness between opposite edges of a finite domain. The manifestation of this asymmetry is especially dramatic in the case of soft lattices undergoing large nonlinear deformation under concentrated loads, where the excess of softness at the soft edge can result in the activation of sharp indentations. This study explores how this mechanical dichotomy between edges can be tuned and possibly extremized by working with soft magneto-mechanical metamaterials. The magneto-mechanical coupling is obtained by endowing the lattice sites with permanent magnets, which activate a network of magnetic forces that can interact with – either augmenting or competing with – the elasticity of the material. Specifically, under sufficiently large deformation that macroscopically alters the equilibrium positions of the sites, the attractive forces between the magnets can trigger bistable reconfiguration mechanisms. The strength of such mechanisms depends on the landscapes of elastic reaction forces exhibited by the edges, which are different due to the polarization, and is therefore inherently edge-selective. We show that, on the soft edge, the addition of magnets simply enhances the softness of the edge. In contrast, on the stiff edge, the magnets activate snapping mechanisms that locally reconfigure the cells and produce a lattice response reminiscent of plasticity, characterized by residual deformation that persists upon unloading.

Enhanced In‐Plane Omnidirectional Energy Harvesting from Extremely Weak Magnetic Fields via Fourfold Symmetric Magneto‐Mechano‐Electric Coupling

AbstractMagneto‐mechano‐electric (MME) energy harvesters (EHs) have emerged as a promising solution for powering Internet of Things (IoT) sensor networks by capturing ambient stray magnetic fields in urban circumstance. Despite significant advancements, achieving milliwatt‐level power generation from extremely weak (<1 Oe) and randomly oriented magnetic fields remains challenging. Drawing inspiration from the configuration of cross‐shaped spider legs, this study introduces an innovative X‐shaped MME‐EH featuring fourfold symmetric architecture with symmetrically distributed magnets at each end, enabling near‐isotropic in‐plane omnidirectional energy harvesting. Under extremely weak magnetic fields 0.75 and 0.3 Oe at 60 Hz, the device achieves a record‐high output power of 7.31 and 1.67 mWRMS, respectively, representing a 362% improvement in normalized power over the state‐of‐the‐art results. The theoretical model attributes these gains to the synergistic enhancement effect of the second bending mode and the dual‐mode structure, collectively improving both magnetomechanical and electromechanical coupling by augmenting the magnetic moments and suppressing the clamp loss. The device further demonstrates robust real‐world applications, efficiently powering a wireless IoT sensor system by harvesting multidirectional magnetic field energy from household appliances. This work opens new avenues for developing efficient multimodal MME‐EHs capable of harnessing omnidirectional, weak magnetic fields for widespread IoT applications.

Experimental study on strengthening the magneto-mechanical coupling effect of X80 steel by weak magnetic excitation

Abstract Current magnetic stress detection techniques are significantly impacted by external noise signals. The magnetic stress detection technology under excitation magnetic fields is proposed to weaken the external noise signals on the detection results. In this study, the uniaxial tensile magnetic signal testing system with the excitation magnetic field was built. The enhancement of the weak magnetic excitation on magnetic signals has been quantitatively analyzed and the concept of optimal weak excitation magnetic field has been proposed. The response law between triaxial magnetic induction intensity and stress under the excitation magnetic field is determined. The results indicate that the weak excitation magnetic field significantly enhances the magnetic induction signal intensity, more importantly, the linearity of the magnetic signal and stress response is also enhanced. Furthermore, the optimal excitation magnetic field under uniaxial stress states is 600 A/m, and the corresponding stress-magnetic change rate is 0.002 Oe/MPa. This study provides a theoretical basis for the long-distance detection of pipelines under weak magnetic excitation. The long-distance magnetic stress detection results of pipelines will become more accurate with the weak magnetic excitation which has a good engineering significance.

Experimental study on synchronous detection of output force in a self-sensing giant magnetostrictive actuator

This paper systematically investigates the real-time detection of static and dynamic output forces by a self-sensing giant magnetostrictive actuator (SSGMA). The online stiffness of the actuator is perceived as the sensing signal according to the ΔE effect of Terfenol-D. Numerical simulations are carried out to analyze the effects of the driving magnetic field and the hysteresis caused by magneto-mechanical coupling on the performance of self-sensing output force. Then the prototype is fabricated and tested to verify the self-sensing characteristics of SSGMA for the output force. The noise density of prototype is tested to be below 56.92 nV √Hz−1. The experimental results illustrate that SSGMA has a self-detection sensitivity of 0.47 mV N−1 for a static force with an amplitude of nearly 120 N. The SSGMA is able to synchronize the tracking of quasi-static and low-frequency dynamic output forces, respectively. The hereby proposed SSGMA further broadens the application scenario of precision actuation systems by synchronizing the detection and control of the output force without requiring external sensors.

A finite-strain plate model for the magneto-mechanical behaviors of hard-magnetic soft material plates

In this paper, we propose a plate model, within the framework of finite-strain elasticity, to study the magneto-mechanical behaviors of hard-magnetic soft material plates. The 2D vector plate equation is derived from the 3D governing equations through a series expansion and truncation approach. The displacement and traction boundary conditions on the edges of plate samples are also proposed. Compared with the other plate or shell theories, the current plate model naturally incorporates the elastic incompressibility and the magneto-mechanical coupling effect of the material, which doesn't involve any a priori hypotheses on the geometry and deformation of the plates. Thus, it is applicable for modeling the large deformations of hard-magnetic soft material plates. To show the efficiency of the plate model, we study a benchmark problem, i.e., the plane-strain bending deformations of plate samples induced by magnetic and mechanical loads. Some analytical solutions of the plate equation system are derived, which provide accurate predictions on the magneto-mechanical response of the plate samples with different thickness-length ratios and magnetization directions. To promote applications of the plate model, we further derive a simplified plate equation system and write out its weak form, which is then implemented into the finite element software COMSOL Multiphysics. The efficiency of the simplified plate equation system is also verified through some typical examples. It is found that the numerical results obtained from the 2D plate model show good consistency with those of the 3D volume model, while the plate model exhibits obvious advantages in the aspects of numerical efficiency.

Enhanced Magnetic Soft Robotics: Integrating Fiber Optics and 3D Printing for Rapid Actuation and Precision Sensing.

Timely, accurate, and rapid grasping of dynamic change information in magnetic actuation soft robots is essential for advancing their evolution toward intelligent, integrated, and multifunctional systems. However, existing magnetic-actuation soft robots lack effective functions for integrating sensing and actuation. Herein, we demonstrate the integration of distributed fiber optics technology with advanced-programming 3D printing techniques. This integration provides our soft robots unique capabilities such as integrated sensing, precise shape reconstruction, controlled deformation, and sophisticated magnetic navigation. By utilizing an improved magneto-mechanical coupling model and an advanced inversion algorithm, we successfully achieved real-time reconstruction of complex structures, such as 'V', 'N', and 'M' shapes and gripper designs, with a notable response time of 34 ms. Additionally, our robots demonstrate proficiency in magnetic navigation and closed-loop deformation control, making them ideal for operation in confined or obscured environments. This work thus provides a transformative strategy to meet unmet demands in the rapidly growing field of soft robotics, especially in establishing the theoretical and technological foundation for constructing digitized robots.

Modelling the magnetic-mechanical coupled viscoelastic behaviour of transversely isotropic soft magnetorheological elastomers

Soft magnetorheological elastomers (s-MRE) is a kind of smart material mainly fabricated by embedding soft magnetic particles into an elastomer matrix. It can be categorized as isotropic and transversely isotropic, depending on the arrangement of internal magnetic particles. In isotropic s-MRE, magnetic particles are randomly distributed, while transversely isotropic s-MRE forms chain structures for the magnetic particles. Compared with isotropic s-MRE, transversely isotropic s-MRE exhibits more significant magnetically-enhanced mechanical properties, making it highly applicable in the vibration control area. While past theoretical work has mainly focused on the magneto-mechanical coupling behaviour of isotropic s-MRE, less attention has been given to modelling the magneto-mechanical coupling behaviour of transversely isotropic s-MRE. Specifically, understanding the impact of different particle chain-magnetic field spatial locations on the magnetization and magnetic-enhanced viscoelastic behaviour of transversely isotropic s-MRE remains an open topic. To address this research gap, we characterize the quasi-static, viscoelastic and magnetization performance of transversely isotropic s-MRE under different particle chain-magnetic field spatial locations. Subsequently, we develop a novel constitutive model for transversely isotropic s-MRE, integrating magneto-hyperelasticity, magneto-viscoelasticity and magnetization. We then implement the magneto-mechanical coupled model for transversely isotropic s-MRE at a finite element level. Following model calibration and validation, we conduct a case study to demonstrate the model’s ability to predict the magneto-mechanical coupling performance of a transversely isotropic s-MRE-based laminated isolator. This model is a valuable tool for predicting the magneto-mechanical performance of transversely isotropic s-MRE-based smart devices, thereby facilitating the design and advancement of transversely isotropic s-MRE in vibration control.

Magneto-Mechanical Coupling Analysis of Automobile Brake by Wire System Based on Giant-Magnetostrictive Actuator

Addressing the drawbacks of traditional automotive braking systems, including long hydraulic lines, heavy weight, and slow response speed, a new type brake by wire system based on giant-magnetostrictive material is proposed, which consists of giant-magnetostrictive actuator module and mechanical drive module. In this paper, CATIA software is used to establish a three-dimensional model of the brake. In order to verify the reliability of the model, giant-magnetostrictive actuator is taken as the research object, and COMSOL software is used to simulate different working conditions of automobile braking. A Magneto-mechanical coupling model was established and Magneto-mechanical coupling analysis of the actuator was carried out. The simulation results show that the aluminum shell material is superior to the 45 steel shell material. The inductance direction of the actuator is approximately elliptical from top to bottom, with uniform distribution of magnetic flux density and stress. The output stress is 5e4N/m2, and the maximum elongation is 0.1071mm. Finally, the driving efficiency of GMA was verified on an optical isolation platform, and comparative experiments were conducted before and after optimization using instruments such as laser displacement samplers, Tesla meters, and force sensors. The experimental results indicate that by optimizing the housing material and structure of the actuator, the displacement increased from 0.05188mm to 0.1003mm, magnetic induction increased from 42.9mT to 79.9mT, resulting in an increase of 41.6% and 42.7% respectively, and the maximum output force was 4752.3N. It makes a certain contribution to the application of GMA to automotive braking field and further proves the effectiveness of GMA in the application of automobile brake by wire system.

Modeling and simulation of magnetostrictive actuators based on ΔE effect Preisach model

Based on the classical Preisach model, combined with the magneto-mechanical coupling effect of Giant magnetostrictive materials (GMM), this paper introduces the Everett function to optimize the classical Preisach hysteresis model and improve its accuracy. By importing dynamic parameters, the dynamic Preisach hysteresis model is established. Combined with the constitutive model of GMM, a dynamic Preisach hysteretic nonlinear magnetostrictive actuator model based on the ΔE effect is established. Then, the finite element simulation is carried out by Comsol software and compared with the theoretical model simulation. The results show that the error between the magnetostrictive strain of the established hysteresis model and the finite element simulation results is less than 100 ppm, which verifies the accuracy of the proposed model. Finally, the curves of magnetic field intensity, magnetic induction intensity, magnetization, magnetostrictive strain and ΔE effect of GMA are obtained by using this model.

Synthesis, characterization, and modeling of gelatin-based magnetic hydrogel beams

Hydrogels are soft materials that can be designed to be responsive to external stimuli such as temperature, pH change, and electric and magnetic fields. Magnetically responsive hydrogels consisting of polymer, water, and magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) are emerging candidates in biomedical fields due to their remote application. In this work, cobalt ferrite-based MNPs prepared by the auto-combustion method are embedded in gelatin hydrogels. Cobalt ferrite-based magnetic hydrogels (HCFO) having high water content are prepared using the solvent casting method. The effective magnetic properties, such as coercivity and remnant magnetization of the hydrogels, are determined from the magnetization response (m-h curve) obtained through a vibrating sample Magnetometer (VSM). Subsequently, the HCFOs are subjected to uniaxial tensile loading to obtain mechanical properties. The size and shape of MNPs are obtained using X-ray Diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis. Furthermore, the magnetic hydrogel beams (cantilever) have been prepared and subjected to the external magnetic field. A unique phenomenological model has been proposed which can predict the finite deflection of the beam under magnetic loading exploiting the hard magnetic behavior of the HCFO. The proposed model takes into account particle concentration, finite elasticity, and magneto-mechanical coupling. The softness of the hydrogels matrix and hard magnetic properties of the MNPs results in large deflection. Further, the experimental observations and modeling predictions are in good agreement.

Thermodynamic description for magneto-plastic coupling in electrical steel sheets

The purpose of the study is to propose a thermodynamic description of the full magneto-mechanical coupling in electrical steel sheets, including both elasticity and plasticity influence. Kinematic and isotropic hardening are considered as state variables and included to a second-order magneto-elastic energy written as a function of cubic invariants. The simulation of magnetic behaviour of plastified samples subjected to several elastic stresses reproduce the general trends of measurements carried out on non-oriented Fe-3%Si sheets.

Adaptive beam with elastic support based on magnetorheological elastomers for modal modulation and vibration suppression

Owing to the wide modulation capability of their magneto-induced modulus, smart structure-based magnetorheological elastomers (MREs) show great promise for vibration control in numerous engineering applications. In conventional smart structure-based MREs, however, vibration absorption or isolation is mainly used for discrete structural systems, and the requirement for vibration control in continuous structures can limit the application of vibration absorbers and isolators. Therefore, it is necessary to resolve the dynamic properties of the continuous structure to obtain modal information. In this paper, different types of smart beams with adaptive elastic support (AES)-based MREs, containing dual-end elastic support, single-end elastic support, and the combination of a fixed end and an AES at an arbitrary location, are developed to tactically influence the dynamics through magneto-mechanical coupling. A dynamic model of thin-walled beams with AES was established by using the improved Fourier series method (IFSM). The numerical results confirm that the effective suppression bandwidth of the beam with MRE-AES can be shifted as a result of the modal modulation-induced energy transfer from low to high frequencies, which requires a decreasing trend of modal amplitude at the response location as the elastic support stiffness increases. According to the modal analysis, the beams with single-end AES and dual-end AES have a decreasing trend of modal amplitude in the global location as stiffness increases. However, the modal amplitude trend of the beam with a fixed end and an AES is not monotonic at certain locations. The experimental results demonstrate that MRE-AES can effectively attenuate the acceleration responses of the beams with single-end AES and with a fixed end and an AES under harmonic excitation. The resonance peaks in the transmission remarkably shift to higher frequencies with increasing magnetic flux.

High-velocity micromorphological observation and simulation of magnetorheological gel using programmable magneto-controlled microfluidics system and micro-tube dynamic models

Application of magnetorheological gel (MRG) is a promising tool for high performance mitigation due to its outstanding energy absorption and dissipation properties. However, the lack of recognition on micromorphological variation for MRG and its magneto-mechanical coupling mechanism limits its extensive application. Herein, combined with the magnetic sensitivity nature of MRG, we develop a magneto-controlled microfluidic system for flexible simulation toward ms-level impact conditions. Microstructural changes of MRG, prepared with solid–liquid composite method, are characterized from variable magnet-field setups and gradual velocities. Experiments reveal that the increasing magnetic flux density can effectively enhance the stability of chains in as-fabricated MRG, while the chains can support excessive velocities up to 4.5 m s−1 before breaking. Meanwhile, under the preset velocity range, the maximum change rates of the average and standard deviation for inclinations are 183.71% and 40.06%, respectively. Successively, an experiment-conducted microdynamic model is developed for numerical simulation of the MRG mechanical behaviors. During that, high-velocity MRG behaviors are explored with a tubular rather than regular flat-structure boundary condition setups, to pursue more trustable results. Simulation readouts meet nicely with those from experiments in revealing the magneto-mechanical coupling mechanism of MRG under multiphysics. The interaction between magnetic force, repulsive force and viscous resistance is mainly illustrated. This work provides a reliable observation basis for micromorphological variation of MRG, also suggests a new method for the mechanism of magneto-mechanical coupling at extreme velocities.

Magneto-Mechanical Coupling Study of Magnetorheological Elastomer Thin Films for Sensitivity Enhancement.

Magnetorheological elastomer thin films (MREFs) exhibit remarkable deformability and an adjustable modulus under magnetic fields, rendering them promising in fields such as robotics, flexible sensors, and biomedical engineering. Here, we fabricated MREF by introducing magnetostrictive particles (MSPs) and evaluated the magneto-mechanical coupling effect on the enhancement of sensitivity. The saturation magnetization (Ms) in a parallel anisotropic TbDyFe-PDMS MREF was 5.8 emu/g, and the initial tensile modulus was 55% greater than that of an Iso MREF. We propose a nonlinear magnetorheological formula on the magnetostriction effect, incorporating magnetic dipole interactions and the nonlinear prestress of magnetic particles. This formula highlights the complex nonlinear relationship between the external magnetic field (H) and the key parameters that affect the enhanced MR effect of MSPs-MREF, such as saturation magnetization, remanence (Mr), magnetostriction constant (λs) and stress deviator in ferromagnetic particles (Sed) in the magnetic chain structure. Furthermore, we validate the influence of the key parameters of the rectified magnetorheological formula on a nonlinear magneto-mechanical behavior of MSPs-MREF in PDMS-based MSPs-MREF models by using finite-element simulations. Finally, we developed a biosensor based on MSPs-MREF to detect human serum albumin at low concentrations in human urine samples. There is a 4-fold increase in sensitivity, a lower detection of limit (0.442 μg/mL), and a faster response time (15 min) than traditional biosensors, which in the future might provide an effective way of detecting biomolecules of low concentrations.