Macrotermes Bellicosus Research Articles

Morphological Identification of Edible Termites (Isoptera) in Luanda Sub-County, Kenya

Termites are social insects that live in colonies underground. Globally, there are 3000 termite species, of which 39% are found in Africa. Termites are used as food and livestock feed in most communities of the world. In Kenya, termites are consumed by many communities, especially in the western region. Termite species diversity across different parts of the Luanda sub-county was established as there are many edible and non-edible species in the area. This study assessed the species diversity of termites in Luanda sub-county, and characterized them morphologically. Termites were sampled in Luanda sub-county using the line transect method. The collected termites were preserved in tubes containing 70% Ethanol. The preserved samples were taken to the National Museums of Kenya for morphological identification up to species level. Species richness of each habitat was analyzed for diversity (Shannon-Wiener) index and Shannon index by using Vegan package version 1.16 - 32 in R. The differences in species composition and diversity of termites were analyzed using one-way ANOVA. Morphological identification recorded seven species, namely, Macrotermes herus, Macrotermes spp1, Macrotermes sp1, Pseudocanthotermes grandiceps, Macrotermes bellicosus, Macrotermes spp2 and Pseudocanthotermes militaris. The results of this study showed that the Shannon diversity index H was 0.3606 while Simpson index D was 0.20644, which implied a high species diversity of termites in Luanda sub-county a leading producer of edible termites in Kenya.

Attacks by Termites (Blattoptera: Insecta) in cassava crops (Manioth esculenta Crantz.) in Daloa (Center-West, Côte d’Ivoire)

A study was carried out on the attack of termites in three cassava plots located in the zone of Daloa (town in the center-west of the Côte d’Ivoire). The main objective of this study was to ensure a sustainable productivity of cassava in the Daloa region by controlling termite’s pests of cassava crops according to the phenological stage, namely: the plot of cassava at the small stalk stage, the plot at the tuber production stage and the plot at the harvest stage. To this end, systematic excavations were carried out in the sections along the transects and plant-by-plant sampling in order to inventory the different species of termites on the plots and to highlight the damage they cause. This made it possible to identify 4 species of termites: Odontotermes sp., Macrotermes bellicosus, Pseudacanthotermes militaris and Nasutitermes latifrons, of which 1 species is common to all three environments. The comparative analysis of the different study environments showed that the plots at the production stage and at the harvest stage are the most colonized by termites. Odontotermes sp. observed only in plots at the small stage, as well as Nasutitermes latifrons which are only present on the plot at the production stage. Pseudacanthotermes militaris are best represented on all three plots.

The Nutritional Profiles of Five Important Edible Insect Species From West Africa-An Analytical and Literature Synthesis.

Background: Undernutrition is a prevalent, serious, and growing concern, particularly in developing countries. Entomophagy—the human consumption of edible insects, is a historical and culturally established practice in many regions. Increasing consumption of nutritious insect meal is a possible combative strategy and can promote sustainable food security. However, the nutritional literature frequently lacks consensus, with interspecific differences in the nutrient content of edible insects generally being poorly resolved.Aims and methods: Here we present full proximate and fatty acid profiles for five edible insect species of socio-economic importance in West Africa: Hermetia illucens (black soldier fly), Musca domestica (house fly), Rhynchophorus phoenicis (African palm weevil), Cirina butyrospermi (shea tree caterpillar), and Macrotermes bellicosus (African termite). These original profiles, which can be used in future research, are combined with literature-derived proximate, fatty acid, and amino acid profiles to analyse interspecific differences in nutrient content.Results: Interspecific differences in ash (minerals), crude protein, and crude fat contents were substantial. Highest ash content was found in H. illucens and M. domestica (~10 and 7.5% of dry matter, respectively), highest crude protein was found in C. butyrospermi and M. domestica (~60% of dry matter), whilst highest crude fat was found in R. phoenicis (~55% of dry matter). The fatty acid profile of H. illucens was differentiated from the other four species, forming its own cluster in a principal component analysis characterized by high saturated fatty acid content. Cirina butyrospermi had by far the highest poly-unsaturated fatty acid content at around 35% of its total fatty acids, with α-linolenic acid particularly represented. Amino acid analyses revealed that all five species sufficiently met human essential amino acid requirements, although C. butyrospermi was slightly limited in leucine and methionine content.Discussion: The nutritional profiles of these five edible insect species compare favorably to beef and can meet human requirements, promoting entomophagy's utility in combatting undernutrition. In particular, C. butyrospermi may provide a source of essential poly-unsaturated fatty acids, bringing many health benefits. This, along with its high protein content, indicates that this species is worthy of more attention in the nutritional literature, which has thus-far been lacking.

Isolation, characterization, and genome assembly of Barnettozyma botsteinii sp. nov. and novel strains of Kurtzmaniella quercitrusa isolated from the intestinal tract of the termite Macrotermes bellicosus.

Bioconversion of hemicelluloses into simpler sugars leads to the production of a significant amount of pentose sugars, such as d-xylose. However, efficient utilization of pentoses by conventional yeast production strains remains challenging. Wild yeast strains can provide new industrially relevant characteristics and efficiently utilize pentose sugars. To explore this strategy, we isolated gut-residing yeasts from the termite Macrotermes bellicosus collected in Comoé National Park, Côte d’Ivoire. The yeasts were classified through their Internal Transcribed Spacer/Large Subunit sequence, and their genomes were sequenced and annotated. We identified a novel yeast species, which we name Barnettozyma botsteinii sp. nov. 1118T (MycoBank: 833563, CBS 16679T and IBT 710) and two new strains of Kurtzmaniella quercitrusa: var. comoensis (CBS 16678, IBT 709) and var. filamentosus (CBS 16680, IBT 711). The two K. quercitrusa strains grow 15% faster on synthetic glucose medium than Saccharomyces cerevisiae CEN.PKT in acidic conditions (pH = 3.2) and both strains grow on d-xylose as the sole carbon source at a rate of 0.35 h−1. At neutral pH, the yeast form of K. quercitrusa var. filamentosus, but not var. comoensis, switched to filamentous growth in a carbon source-dependent manner. Their genomes are 11.0–13.2 Mb in size and contain between 4888 and 5475 predicted genes. Together with closely related species, we did not find any relationship between gene content and ability to grow on xylose. Besides its metabolism, K. quercitrusa var. filamentosus has a large potential as a production organism, because of its capacity to grow at low pH and to undergo a dimorphic shift.

Molecular underpinnings of division of labour among workers in a socially complex termite

Division of labour characterizes all major evolutionary transitions, such as the evolution of eukaryotic cells or multicellular organisms. Social insects are characterized by reproductive division of labour, with one or a few reproducing individuals (queens) and many non-reproducing nestmates (workers) forming a colony. Among the workers, further division of labour can occur with different individuals performing different tasks such as foraging, brood care or building. While mechanisms underlying task division are intensively studied in social Hymenoptera, less is known for termites, which independently evolved eusociality. We investigated molecular mechanisms underlying task division in termite workers to test for communality with social Hymenoptera. We compared similar-aged foraging workers with builders of the fungus-growing termite Macrotermes bellicosus using transcriptomes, endocrine measures and estimators of physiological condition. Based on results for social Hymenoptera and theory, we tested the hypotheses that (i) foragers are in worse physiological conditions than builders, (ii) builders are more similar in their gene expression profile to queens than foragers are, and (iii) builders invest more in anti-ageing mechanism than foragers. Our results support all three hypotheses. We found storage proteins to underlie task division of these similar-aged termite workers and these genes also characterize reproductive division of labour between queens and workers. This implies a co-option of nutrient-based pathways to regulate division of labour across lineages of termites and social Hymenoptera, which are separated by more than 133 million years.

Nutritional values of Zonocerus variegatus, Macrotermes bellicosus and Cirina forda insects: Mineral composition, fatty acids and amino acid profiles

Most edible insects have high nutritional values and are considered as a cheap source of animal protein. This study evaluated the nutritional values of three edible insects in Nigeria: Zonocerus variegatus, Macrotermes bellicosus and Cirina forda as well as their functional properties. The insects had high values of crude fat, protein and vitamins (A, B6, C and E). All the quantified minerals in this study except Na, K and Fe are greater in Z. variegatus when compared to M. bellicosus and C. forda. The recommended nutrient intake (RNI) for infants, children, pregnant and lactating women (PLW) for vitamin B9 was >25% in the three insects, and >100% for vitamin B2 in M. bellicosus and C. forda in standard portions. The RNI of iron and zinc for infants, children and PLW was >25% of the studied insects in standard portions with iron contributing ≥100%. Linoleic acid (C18:2n-6) and oleic acid (C18:1 cis-9) were the dominant fatty acids. Substantial amounts of essential and non-essential amino acids were present in the three insect samples. The functional properties for the isolates and flour contents of the insects varied significantly (p<0.05) across the three edible insects. The data from this study show that the three edible insects have adequate nutritive values that can be exploited as an alternative food source for combating nutritional deficiencies associated with malnutrition. Also, the functional properties of these insects indicate that they have the potential to be harnessed by food industries for enrichment and fortification of human foods and animal feeds.

Variation in susceptibility of Eucalyptus grandis and selected hybrid clones to two termite species Macrotermes bellicosus and M. subhyalinus in Uganda

The maximum productivity of plantation forestry and its role in climate change mitigation, adaptation and resilience cannot be met without proper management. Termites in the genus Macrotermes have been reported as a major challenge to Eucalyptus plantation forestry establishment. The current study evaluated the susceptibility of four Eucalyptus hybrid clones: GU 7, GC 796, GC 550 and GC 796/2, and E. grandis Hill ex Maid. to the most damaging Macrotermes bellicosus (Smeathman) and Macrotermes subhyalinus (Rambur) to identify tolerant material that can be planted in high incidence areas. The study involved exposure of moisture dry pieces of wood from E. grandis and the four hybrid clones to damage by M. bellicosus and M. subhyalinus. Results confirmed that M. bellicosus is the most aggressive. Results further revealed that E. grandis and GC 550 are the most susceptible whereas GC 796 is the most tolerant clone. The findings from the study will contribute to improved management of termites by planting tolerant material in high risk areas.

Formulation of vegetable soup powder from Clerodendrum volubile enriched with Macrotermes bellicosus (termite) flour

Consumption of edible insects as an alternative source of protein is being restricted by the perceived feeling of disgust amongst many people. This study was carried out to introduce the consumption of insects in a non-traditional form by producing a ready-to-cook soup powder from Clerodendrum volubile (C. volubile) and enriching it with Macrotermes bellicosus (Termites) at various ratios (with a proportion of C. volubile powder ranging from 80 to 50%, termite powder from 20% - 10% and spices from 15 to 5%) and to evaluate the nutritional, functional and sensory properties of the resulting soup powders. One hundred percent C. volubile powder was used as control and compared with the termite-vegetable blends. The protein content of the blends ranged from 26.53 ± 0.17% to 29.94 ± 0.18% and was higher than the control (15.02%). Moisture content ranged from 4.08 ± 0.02% to 6.09 ± 0.00% while fat ranged from 10.19% to 16.84%. The carbohydrate content (36.84%- 42.86%) decreased as the level of enrichment increased and were lower compared to the control (54.79%). The enriched vegetable soup was quite acceptable as there was no significant difference in the taste, texture, mouthfeel, consistency and appearance amongst the formulated blends. Enrichment with 10% termites gave a soup that had the highest overall acceptability.

Contact and repellent effects of essential oils of Chromolaena odorata (L.) and Uvaria chamae (P. Beauv) against Macrotermes bellicosus (Smeathman)

Macrotermes bellicosus, though a beneficial termite species causes serious damage to wood and wood products, fabrics and many agricultural crops and ornamental trees. This study was conducted to assess the potentials of essential oils of the leaves of Chromolaena odorata and roots of Uvaria chamae in the control of M. bellicosus. The repellency, knockdown and insecticidal effects of the oils to M. bellicosus were tested using the filter paper and cotton ball impregnation technique. Each test oil (0.05, 0.075 and 0.10 ml) was separately used in the repellency assay, for an exposure period of 30 and 60 minutes. For the knockdown and toxicity test, termites were exposed to 0.05, 0.075, 0.10, 0.125 and 0.15 ml of each oil for an exposure period of 60 minutes and 6 hours, respectively. Each test and control (untreated) group had three replicates and in each experiment twenty active workers of M. bellicosus were exposed. Repellency results were somewhat irregular and oil volume and exposure, time independent. Knockdown effect of 56.67 and 86.67 % were observed for C. odorata and U. chamae oils (0.15ml), respectively at the 60th minute. Contact toxicity test with 0.15 ml of the oils resulted in 100 % and 86.67 % mortalities for U. chamae and C. odorata, respectively. No knockdown or mortalities were observed in the controls. The difference between the repellency of both oils at 30 and 60 minutes was not significant (p&gt;0.05; p= 0.842 and 0.212 respectively), whereas for knockdown and insecticidal effects of both oils the difference was significant Q3(p&lt;0.05; p= 0.000 and 0.001 respectively).. Essential oils of C. odorata and U. chamae are potential agents for the control of M. bellicosus.

Chemical Profile and Antimicrobial Activity of the Fungus-Growing Termite Strain Macrotermes Bellicosus Used in Traditional Medicine in the Republic of Benin.

The fungus growing termite species Macrotermes bellicosus (M. bellicosus) is used in nutrition and traditional medicine in the Republic of Benin for the treatment of infectious and inflammatory diseases. Previous findings demonstrated evidence of anti-inflammatory and spasmolytic properties of M. bellicosus. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the antimicrobial potential of different extracts of M. bellicosus samples and determine the chemical profile of an ethanolic M. bellicosus extract. Chemical profiling was conducted using centrifugal partition chromatography and 13C-NMR, followed by MALDI-TOF MS. Major identified compounds include hydroquinone (HQ), methylhydroquinone (MHQ), 3,4-dihydroxyphenethyl glycol (DHPG), N-acetyldopamine (NADA) and niacinamide. The fatty acid mixture of the extract was mainly composed of linoleic and oleic acid and highlights the nutritional purpose of M. bellicosus. Using the Kirby–Bauer disc diffusion and broth microdilution assay, an antibacterial activity of M. bellicosus samples was observed against various clinical strains with a highest growth inhibition of S. aureus. In addition, HQ and MHQ as well as fractions containing DHPG, niacinamide and NADA inhibited S. aureus growth. The reported antimicrobial activity of M. bellicosus and identified active substances provide a rationale for the traditional medicinal use of M. bellicosus.

Refuge in architecture: mounds and diversity of termite species from a Sahel and Sudan savannah

Mounds are prominent architectural features found in savannah ecosystems, where they play important roles. Although constant in form for many species, the appearance and type of mound can vary with environmental conditions such as rainfall, temperature, vegetation and locality. However, variability between mounds of same species in different habitats like savannah is not well studied. Here we compared the densities and architectural designs of mounds built by seven species of mound building termites found in two different savannah habitats. A low diversity (Shannon diversity index) was obtained for the Sahel compared to the Sudan region. Simpson’s diversity shows 64% and 67% chances of encountering any two of the species from Sahel and Sudan savannah respectively. Within species, there were no main difference in height, basal circumference and width of mounds except for the mounds of Macrotermes bellicosus. Commonly built mounds by the species were cathedral, cone, dome and mushroom shapes. The differential response to the two savannah types by the termite’s species suggest varying ability to respond to environmental selection pressures. Fungus growing termite, like Odontotermes, might have to trade mound modifications due to the environmental condition against mound structure beneficial to fungus growth.

EFFECT OF PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PARAMETERS ON THE ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY OF TERMITES AND OTHER ARTHROPODS IN TERMITE MOUNDS IN UYO, AKWA IBOM STATE, NIGERIA

Termites are generally regarded as pests, although they have some beneficial roles to play in the ecosystem, particularly in the soil. This study was conducted between January 2018 and April 2018, to determine the effect of physico-chemical parametrs on abundance and diversity of termites and other arthropods in termite mounds in Uinversity of Uyo Community. Soil samples were randomly collected from six termite mounds from two sites for physiochemical parameters analysis and these were temperature, pH, moisture content, nitrogen, phosphorus, magnesium, copper, sodium, potassium, manganese and iron.. The termites and other arthropods were preserved in 70% ethanol. Temperature and moisture content, copper, sodium and iron were significant. The results revealed that the physicochemical parameters affected the termite species abundance as station 1 (539) had relatively more of the termite species than station 2 (551), and also affected the diversity of the termites as station 1 (0.89) had relatively more diversity of the termites than station 2 (0.66). Also from the results, station 1 (2.06) had relatively more diversity of the other arthropod species identified in the study area than station 2 (1.59). Macrotermes bellicosus and Odontermes badius termite species were identified. Musca domestica, Anopheles gambiae, Lasius sp, Archispirostreptus sp, Camponotus sp, Missulena sp, Chorthippus sp, Acheta sp and Blatta orientalis were the other arthropods collected and identified. Macrotermes bellicosus (59.93 %; 63.52 %) was the most abundance and dorminant of the termite species identified in the study areas. Lasius sp (45; 25.93 %)

Exposure of the African mound building termite, Macrotermes bellicosus workers to commercially formulated 2,4-D and atrazine caused high mortality and impaired locomotor response.

Recent empirical evidence suggests that herbicides have damaging effects on non-target organisms in both natural and semi-natural ecosystems. The African mound building termite, Macrotermes bellicosus, is an important beneficial insect that functions as an ecosystem engineer due to its role in the breakdown of dead and decaying materials. Here, we examined the effects of 2,4-D amine salt (2,4-D) and atrazine based herbicides viz. Vestamine® and Ultrazine® on the survival and locomotion response of M. bellicosus. Worker termites were treated with a range of concentrations of Vestamine® (the recommended concentration: 6.25 ml per 500 ml of water, 0.25- and 0.5-fold below the recommended concentration and distilled water as control) and Ultrazine® (the recommended concentration: 3.75 ml per 500 ml of water, 0.25-, 0.5-, 2.0- and 4-fold of the recommended concentration and distilled water as control) for 24 hours for the mortality test, and allowed to run for 15 seconds for the locomotion trial. All concentrations of both Vestamine® and Ultrazine® were highly toxic to worker termites and mortality increased as the concentration and time after treatment increased. For both herbicides, concentrations far less than the recommended rates caused 100% mortality. The speed of termites was significantly influenced by both Vestamine® and Ultrazine® as termites exposed to all tested concentrations of the herbicides exhibited reduced running speed than the control. These findings suggest that beneficial insects, especially M. bellicosus may experience high mortality (up to 100%) and reduced mobility if they are sprayed upon or come in contact with plant materials that have been freshly sprayed with (less or more than) the recommended concentrations of Vestamine® and Ultrazine®. The findings of our study calls for the reassessment of the usage of 2,4-D and atrazine based herbicides in weed control in termite and other beneficial insect populated habitats.

Ethnomedicinal survey and in vitro confirmation of anti-inflammatory and antispasmodic properties of the termite strain Macrotermes bellicosus used in traditional medicine in the Republic of Benin.

Ethnopharmacological relevanceInsects and insect-derived products play a vital role in traditional medicine in many parts of the world since ancient times. Among these insects, fungus-growing termites like Macrotermes bellicosus (M. bellicosus) are widely used in nutrition and traditional medicine in various societies of sub-Saharan Africa. Aim of the studyAim of the present study was to explore the traditional applications of M. bellicosus and subsequently investigate the anti-inflammatory and spasmolytic activity of samples collected in Benin. Material and methodsAn ethnomedicinal survey with thirty active healers in Benin was conducted and the anti-inflammatory activity of an ethanolic extract of M. bellicosus was investigated. Thus, LPS-induced TNFα release from differentiated human macrophages (THP-1) and IL-8 release from cytokine (IL-1β/TNFα/IFNγ)-challenged human intestinal epithelial cells (Caco-2) was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Furthermore, the influence of M. bellicosus extract on basal tone and induced contractions in isolated rat small intestinal preparations was determined to examine the influence on intestinal motility. ResultsThe survey of 30 active healers demonstrated that M. bellicosus and its products (termites’ mound and fungus comb) are used in Benin for therapeutic purposes mainly to treat infectious and inflammatory diseases including digestive disorders, snake bites and diarrhea. It was found that M. bellicosus extract inhibited both LPS-induced TNFα release from human macrophages and cytokine-induced IL-8 release from intestinal epithelial cells comparable to budesonide. In addition, isometric contraction measurement with isolated rat small intestinal preparations demonstrated a mild spasmolytic effect of the termite extract in higher concentrations with a suppression of induced contractions and relaxation of basal tone. ConclusionM. bellicosus which is used in traditional medicine in Benin to treat infectious and inflammatory diseases showed anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokine release and a moderate influence on intestinal motility.

Mound Distribution and Soil Transformation by Macrotermes bellicosus in Bagudo and Augie in Kebbi State, Nigeria

The study was carried out to determine the distribution and soil transformation by Macrotermes bellicosus species. Two local government areas of Kebbi State namely; Bagudo and Augie were selected for the study. Field survey and proximate analysis was used for the study, data generated were analyzed using descriptive (Means) and inferential (ANOVA) statistics. Mounds were manually counted; where distance, height and basal circumferences were measured using measuring tape. Results obtained showed mound size was significantly different (P˂0.05) among the study area. Physical characteristics of mounds such as distance, basal circumference, height: were also significantly different (P˂0.05) in all the locations. Dry land and wet land showed no significant (P˃0.05) difference exhibited in physical characteristics. Results indicated significant (P˂0.05) difference in Cation exchange capacity (C.E.C), sand, silt, and clay, and all mineral elements in study locations. Mound soils differed: (P˂0.05) significantly in Cation exchange capacity (C.E.C), sand, silt, and clay and all the elements in study locations: In conclusion, termites: can be considered to be cheap agents of soil amendments which can help farmers in improving soil fertility.

Comparing the Nutritional Composition of Some Edible Insects and Some Animal Meats in North-western State of Nigeria

Five different edible insects from Kaduna, Kebbi, Niger, Sokoto and Zamfara States of North-Western Nigeria, namely; Red Locust (Nomadacris setemfasciata), Desert Locust (Schistocerca gregaria), Variegated Grasshopper (Zonocerus wariegatus), Termite (Macrotermes bellicosus) and Brown Cricket (Gryllotapha Africana), were collected alongside with meats from camel (Camellus dromedaries), Cow (Bos indicus), Ram (Ovis aries), Chicken (Gallus gallus), and Fish (Clariaslazera). The insects were oven dried separately at 60ºC for 3-5hrs while the meats were dried at 60ºC for 48hrs. The dried contents of both the insects and the meats were ground separately and each was subjected to proximate analysis. The results indicated the nutrient to have Carbohydrates ranging between 0.7 g - 12.1 g in the insects and 0.4 g-10.2 g in the meats, Proteins ranging from 12.6 g - 57.3 g in the insects and 18.1 g – 70.4 g in the meats, Fats, Fibre, Ash and Moisture having ranges between 5 g - 17.9 g, 5 g - 20 g, 4g -10 g, 11.5 g - 53.6 g, respectively in insects and 18.4 g - 70.4 g Fats, 5 g Fibre, 2.4 g - 10.4 g Ash and 13.4 g – 59 g moisture in the meats. Equally, the minerals showed varied in both the insects and the meats. Statistical comparison of the means of the results showed that the Carbohydrates, the Protein and the Fibre do not differ (P˂0.0) significantly in both the insects and the meats. Similarly Copper, Iron, Sodium, Calcium, Magnesium and Potassium do not differ significantly in the two groups. This suggested that insects as diet when taken in required amount can meet the protein requirement of the human body and can therefore supplement animal meats in our diets.

Effect of Dietary Supplementation of Termites (Macrotermes bellicosus) on the Performance of Broiler Chickens

Effect of Dietary Supplementation of Termites (Macrotermes bellicosus) on the Performance of Broiler Chickens

Anti-&lt;i&gt;Salmonella&lt;/i&gt; activity of metabolites from African soldier termites, &lt;i&gt;Macrotermes bellicosus&lt;/i&gt;

Background: The global emergence and rapid dissemination of multidrug resistant Salmonella strains necessitate research to find new antimicrobials that will effectively be used against these pathogens. In the present study, anti-Salmonella activity of metabolites from African Soldier Termites, Macrotermes bellicosus was demonstrated and subsequently compared with a potent antibiotic, ciprofloxacin.Materials and Methods: N-hexane, ethylacetate, methanol and aqueous extracts of metabolites from the M. bellicosus were assayed for anti-Salmonella activity using the agar dilution method in the determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC). The inhibitory activities of the extracts were compared to ciprofloxacin (256μg/ml). Also, the bioactive components of the extracts were determined using standard techniques.Results: At 4000 μg/ml, N-hexane extract inhibited the growth of Salmonella Typhi, S. Paratyphi A, B and C while ethylacetate extract was able to inhibit S. Paratyphi A and C. Methanolic and aqueous extracts at the same concentration were unable to inhibit these strains of Salmonella. Furthermore, our findings revealed that the MIC of ethylacetate extract was 2000μg/ml for S. Paratyphi A and B, 250μg/ml for S. Typhi, and 125μg/ml for S. Paratyphi C. Also, the MIC of hexane extract was 4000μg/ml for S. Paratyphi B, 2000 μg/ml for S. Paratyphi C, 500μg/ml for S. Typhi and 250μg/ml for S. Paratyphi A respectively. The screening of bioactive components revealed the presence of cardiac glycosides and alkaloids.Conclusion: Our results provide evidence of anti-Salmonella action of metabolites from African Soldier Termites, M. bellicosus. N-hexane and ethylacetate extracts of M. bellicosus may be explored as novel antimicrobials for the treatment of typhoid and paratyphoid fevers thereby reducing the pressure exerted on available antibiotics.Keywords: Salmonella, antimicrobials, insects, extracts

Termicidal properties of wood extractive partitions as a prospective eco-friendly wood preservatives

The quest for the use of environmentally friendly preservatives for protection of wood against biodegradation is on the rise. This has necessitated the research to assess the efficiency of three partitions of wood extractives from Erythrophleum suaveolens and Pterocarpus erinaceus on wood-degrading termites (Macrotermes bellicosus). Three different concentrations (0.00, 0.02 and 0.04 mg/ml) of the plant extractive partitions of methanol, n-hexane, ethyl acetate and n-butanol were used. Saccharum officinarum test blocks were used in exposing the treatments to termites collected from the wild. The trials were laid out as a factorial experiment in completely randomized design, and data collected were analyzed via a multivariate approach. The analyses of variance showed highly significant (P < 0.05) interactive effect of plant extractives, extractive partitions and concentration of extractives on the absorption rate of the extractives, weight loss of the test block and percentage mortality of termites. The results of the study showed that P. erinaceus induced higher mortality (82.36 ± 4.49%); DMSO solvent used for the partitioning recorded the highest mortality (92.56%), while 0.004 and 0.002 mg/ml had significantly higher percentage mortality than the control. Conclusively, from the results, these plants showed potentials in controlling wood-degrading termites.

Termites (Blattodea Latreille 1810, Termitoidae Latreille 1802) of Abuko Nature Reserve, Nyambai Forest Park and Tanji Bird Reserve (The Gambia).

From 28 October to 5 November 2013, a termite study was undertaken in 3 protected sites in The Gambia (West Africa). The aim of the study is to investigate the diversity of termites in three protected areas in the western region of the country. Termite sampling is carried out in 100 m × 2 m transects that are replicated three (3) times in each site. A total of thirty-one (31) termite species, that belong to fungus growing (11), harvester (1), humuvorous (12) and xylophagous (7), were recorded. The following nineteen (19) species are new to The Gambia: Coptotermes intermedius, Astalotermes near quietus, Ancistrotermes cavithorax, Macrotermes bellicosus, Microtermes grassei, M. lepidus, M. subhyalinus, Odontotermes erraticus, O. pauperans, O. sudanensis, Basidentitermes sp., Euchilotermes tensus arcuata, Noditermes cristifrons, Amitermes evuncifer, Amitermes spinifer, Microcerotermes fuscotibialis, Microcerotermes near parvulus, Microcerotermes near solidus and Promirotermes holmgreni. Additional description and/or ecological information on Odontotermes erraticus, Cubitermes severus, Cubitermes n. proximatus, Euchilotermes tensus arcuata, Basidentitermes sp., and Noditermes cristifrons are given.