Macrotermes Bellicosus Research Articles

Phytochemical Screening and Evaluation of Insecticidal Effect of Hydro-Ethanolic Extracts of Leaves and Bark of Nauclea latifolia (Rubiaceae) on Workers of Macrotermes bellicosus (Rambur, Isoptera) in the Laboratory

Pesticides are increasingly criticized for their harmful effects on the environment and the health of farmers by environmental protection organizations and farmers themselves. Faced with this, new strategies including the use of plant-based extracts are proposed. The objective of this study is to evaluate the insecticidal effect of two plant extracts on Macrotermes bellicosus workers. Thus, through phytochemical screening and direct toxicity test, the secondary compounds and the insecticidal effect of hydro-ethanolic extracts of the bark and leaves of Nauclea latifolia were respectively evaluated. Phytochemical screening revealed the presence of sterols, polyphenols, saponins, flavonoids and alkaloids in the hydro-ethanolic extracts of the bark and leaves of N. latifolia. On the other hand, it revealed an absence of tannins in both extracts. The direct toxicity test showed the efficacy of both extracts on M. bellicosus workers. The LD 50 of the hydro-ethanolic extract of the bark of N. latifolia (49.5 mg/L) was 2.6 times lower than that of the hydro-ethanolic extract of the leaves (129.55 mg/L). Total mortality with the hydro-ethanolic extract of the bark with doses of 50 and 100 μl was obtained 72 hours after treatment, while with the hydro-ethanolic extract of the leaves, it was obtained 96 hours after treatment. Efficacy is raised with the hydro-ethanolic extract of the bark. The consumption test revealed the presence of veneer in both treated and control samples. Filter papers were consumed for both extracts in both treated and control samples extracts of the bark and leaves of N. latifolia are effective against M. bellicosus workers. They can be recommended for the control of termite pests after evaluation of their acute toxicity to mammals.

Identification of termites from Gabon using MALDI-TOF MS

Termites are one of the most common pests that damage wood and other cellulosic materials. Although Africa has more varieties of termite species than any other continent, few entomological studies have been conducted in Gabon. Identifying termites poses significant difficulties for entomologists. The aim of this study was to evaluate the reliability and confirm the significance of MALDI-TOF MS in identifying fresh termites collected in equatorial Africa.A total of 108 termites were collected from 13 termite nests during a field mission in 2021 in Lekedi and Bongoville, Gabon. Termites were morphologically identified and subjected to MALDI-TOF MS, then molecular analyses using the COI and 12S rRNA genes.Four termite species were morphologically identified in this study: Pseudacanthotermes militaris, Macrotermes muelleri, Macrotermes nobilis, and Noditermes indoensis. However, when using molecular biology, only three species were identified, namely Macrotermes bellicosus, P. militaris, and N. indoensis, because the specimens initially identified as M. muelleri and M. nobilis were found to be M. bellicosus.The MALDI-TOF MS spectral profiles of the termites were all of good quality, with intra-species reproducibility and inter-species specificity. The spectra of 98 termites were blind tested against our upgraded database, which included the spectra of ten termite specimens. All tested spectra were correctly matched to their respective species, with log score values (LSVs) ranging from 1.649 to 2.592. The mean LSV was 2.215 ± 0.203, and the median was 2.241. However, 95.91% (94/98) of our spectra had LSVs above 1.8. This study demonstrates how a proteomic approach can overcome termites' molecular and morphological identification limitations and serve as a useful taxonomic tool.

Utilization of Soldier Termite (Macrotermes bellicosus) in Fish Feed Production in Bayelsa State, Nigeria

Fishmeal is the conventional source of protein in fish feed but is very expensive thus alternate sources of protein with similar quality to fishmeal are advocated. Soldier termite (Macrotermes bellicosus) was used to totally replace fish meal and combined with other ingredients to form a novel feed called “Termite Meal” (TM) and compared with Conventional Meal (CM) to feed eighteen (18) juvenile Clarias gariepinus (26.33g; 7.76cm) in culture tanks. A total of thirty-six (36) C. gariepinus juveniles were used for the two trial feeds. Proximate composition of the TM and CF showed that TM was significantly (p<0.05) higher than CF in crude protein (49.7%; 43.5%), ash content (11.5%; 8.39%), crude fiber (6.0%; 4.5%) and total energy (3086.0 kcal/kg; 2646.5 kcal/kg). The CF was significantly higher (p<0.05) than the TM in crude lipid (6.6%; 5.9%) and carbohydrate (0.6%; 0.3%) respectively. Juvenile C. gariepinus fed TM recorded significant (p<0.05) final weight, weight gain, final length, length gain, specific growth rate, relative growth rate, feed and protein efficiency ratios but insignificant feed conversion ratio, condition factor, and survival rate throughout the feeding trials (3rd, 6th and 9th weeks). TM proved to be a good fish feed based on the recorded significant values of final weight, weight gain, final length, length gain, specific growth rate, relative growth rate, feed efficiency, and protein efficiency ratio. The study, therefore, suggests the total replacement of fishmeal with termite meal in fish feed production.

Growth Performance and Feed Conversion Efficiency of Indigenous Chicken Fed on Diet Supplemented with Termites (Macrotermes bellicosus)

In view of the emerging challenges of climate change and population growth, the need to ensure consumer health safety among other factors is paramount; this practice has not been standardised, and the health risks and impacts on the environment arising from the practice are not known. While the global consumption of chicken products especially chicken meat drastically increased over the years and the trend is expected to continue. Much of the increase in demand is in the developing countries coupled with demand for the four traditional feed ingredients; maise meal, soya bean meal, fish meal, and meat meal. In all three poultry production systems that are extensive, semi-intensive and intensive, a wide range of alternative feedstuffs should be available for use. Expanding populations will create greater demand for chicken products, and the importance of feed industry resources and production systems will increase. This therefore calls for a need to enhance efforts towards increased chicken productivity. This study, therefore, evaluated the growth performance, feed conversion efficiency, and cost-effectiveness of feed supplementation termite Macrotermes bellicosus for indigenous chicken diets. Three groups of twenty IC were placed on diets comprising prepared feeds with different termite inclusion levels (0%, 2.5% and 5%) for each group for six weeks. Results reveal that the termite supplementation provides high crude protein content (43.36%), which leads to enhanced weight gain but no significant differences in the FCR of ICs compared to conventional feeds. Supplementation at different levels offers varying outcomes regarding feed intake: IC on a diet T3 had a lower feed intake compared to T2 but registered higher FBW and SGR. The use of termites contributes to smallholder farms’ food security by providing a cheaper alternative to commercial poultry feeds; and also increases the market value of IC, thus, increasing the profitability of IC production

Nutritional characterization of some major edible insects around Wukari, Taraba state, Nigeria

Many people go for edible insects in sub-saharan Africa in order combat hunger and to satisfy appetite. Though, generally known as good source of proteins; if insects contain antinutrients in disproportionate levels, they can pose health risk to humans. This study therefore analysed the nutritional and antinutritional components of some insects commonly consumed around Wukari, Nigeria: Shea caterpillar – Cirina butyrospermi Vuillet (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae), Termite – Macrotermes bellicosus Smeathman (Isoptera: Termitidae), Cricket – Gryllus bimaculatus De Geer (Orthoptera: Gryllidae) and Grasshopper - Zonocerus variegatus (Orthoptera: Pyrgomorphidae) vis-à-vis African catfish – Clarias gariepinus Burchel (Siluriformes: Clariidae) which served as control. Proximate, mineral and the antinutrient component were analysed using standard procedures. Results revealed that grasshoppers had more moisture, fat and carbohydrate content than catfish. Also, cricket had an appreciable amount of protein, ash, and fibre content. However, the highest protein content was found in cricket, while grasshoppers contained the least protein. The mineral content analysis revealed that cricket had the highest calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium and zinc content which differed significantly from catfish. The antinutrient analysis revealed that the least amount of tannins was in grasshoppers and phytates, in crickets. The amounts of antinutrients found in the insect samples are largely comparable to that in catfish. The insects assayed are healthy for human consumption and could serve as nutritional supplements. These findings revealed that the assayed insects contain high nutritional components which can substitute catfish in diets in the communities around the study area, and perhaps, beyond.

Evaluation of the potentials of Jatropha curcas seed oil and in combination with leaf extracts of Cymbopogon citratus, Ocimum basilicum, and Eucalyptus globulus as wood preservatives against Macrotermes bellicosus termites

The preservation of non-durable woods such as Ayous through the use of environment friendly products is nowadays a major concern to many tropical wood researchers. The objective of this work was to assess the potentials of Jatropha curcas oil (JCO) alone and in combination with Cymbopogon citratus (JCO + CC), Ocimim basilicum (JCO + OB), and Eucalyptus globulus (JCO + EG) leaves extracts at different concentrations (1, 2, 4, 8, and 16 mg) as wood preservatives of Ayous (Triplochiton scleroxylon) against Macrotermes bellicosus termites. The extracts were tested for their toxicity and repellency on termites. Subsequently, treated and untreated wood was exposed to termites for four weeks. Termite response to treatùents varied with plant species, concentration, and exposure time. Ocimum basilicum extracts combined with J. curcas oil appeared to be the most effective against termites at 16 mg/l for in-vitro tests. It was also shown that the tested treatments were repellent to termites and therefore their mortality could not result from inhalation. J. curcas oil significantly improved the persistence of the treatments. Finally, a combined treatment of J. curcas oil and methanolic extracts of O. basilicum yielded the best protection of Ayous to termite attack, as shown by an average mass loss of 2%. Further research is needed to improve the longevity of the treatments on wood over time.

Survival of mushrooms and termites upon pesticide exposure in the cocoa agro-ecosystem

Pesticides have become integral parts of cocoa cultivation for the management of insect pests and fungal pathogens which cause significant damage to the crop. However, continuous pesticides usage in the cocoa agro-ecosystem is of concern due to perceived adverse effects on non-target organisms. In this study, mushrooms and associated termites were used to elucidate the possible effect of insecticides and fungicides on non-target organisms in the cocoa agro-ecosystem. Vegetative phase of Pleurotus sajor-caju (Oyster mushroom), Volvariella volvacea (Paddy straw mushroom), Termitomyces globulus and Termitomyces robustus (Termite mushrooms) were subjected to concentrations of commercially formulated fungicides (metalaxyl 12 % + copper (I) oxide 60 % and cupric hydroxide 77 %) and insecticides (imidacloprid 20 % and bifenthrin 2.7 %) to observe their growth rates on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) medium. Worker termites, Macrotermes bellicosus, were also exposed to the pesticides in Petri dishes for 24 h to observe their mortality. The manufacturer’s recommended concentration of 245 ppm for bifenthrin completely inhibited mycelial growth of all the mushrooms and caused 100% mortality of termites. At 0.0245 ppm, the insecticide caused 60% mortality of termites, but it had no inhibitory effect on the mushrooms. Except P. sajor-caju, mycelial growth of all the other mushrooms were completely inhibited by metalaxyl + copper (I) oxide at the manufacturer’s recommended concentration of 2400 ppm. However, mycelial growth rate of the mushrooms at 0.24 ppm of the fungicide was similar to the control plates. This suggests that mushrooms could survive in the cocoa agro-ecosystem amidst pesticides at lower concentrations in cocoa soils.

Antimicrobial Activity of Bacterial Strains Isolated from Macrotermes belli-cosus Termite Mound

Natural environments like termite mounds can be a reservoir for novel microbial strains and antimicrobial metabolite producers. Hence, this study aimed to investigate the antimicrobial activities of bacterial strains isolated from Macrotermes bellicosus (M. bellicosus) termite mound materials. These materials were sampled from active termite mounds in the Somgandé botanic reserve in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. The study collected sixty-three bacterial isolates and assessed their antimicrobial activity against several pathogenic bacteria (Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Micrococcus luteus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus) and two pathogenic fungi (Aspergillus niger and Candida albicans). The dual culture and paper disc diffusion assays revealed that 10 isolates (5 bacteria and 5 actinobacteria) inhibited the growth of at least one pathogenic microorganism. In comparison, four isolates inhibited both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Overall, isolates MBm2, MBm8 (bacteria), and MBm26 (actinobacterium) displayed better antibacterial- and antifungal activity against all tested pathogenic microorganisms. It is germane to indicate here that several typical bacteria and actinobacteria isolated from the M. bellicosus termite mound materials were good producers of antibacterial and antifungal agents. Thus, future studies could further characterize these isolates and optimize their growth for producing antimicrobial compounds. The bioactive compounds should also be identified for further biotechnological applications.

Metagenome-Assembled Genome Sequence of a Strain of Burkholderia cepacia Isolated from the Gut of Macrotermes bellicosus in Nigeria.

The efficiency of the termite Macrotermes bellicosus at digesting lignocellulose is due to its gut bacterial symbionts. We report the metagenome-assembled genome sequence of Burkholderia cepacia UJ_SKK_1.2, reconstructed from metagenomes produced from Macrotermes bellicosus gut microbiota. The 7,460,271-bp genome obtained consists of 6,763 protein-coding sequences, with 6,719 functionally assigned genes and 59 RNA genes.

English

Experiments at Mbaga hills of Siaya County in Kenya were aimed to determine the most effective organic baiting technique for mass harvesting of Macrotermes bellicosus. Around two separate mounds, 5 treatments replicated 3 times, using earthen pot and plastic containers with maize stocks, eucalyptus stems, lantana camara twigs, Napier grass and rice husks, were set up. Termite counts, at 6.00 am and 6.00 pm, and data on temperature and humidity, from a Hobo data logger were collected over the 21 days period. The data were analyzed using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) at (p=0.05) and Least Significance Difference (LSD) tests. Substrate preference differed significantly (p< 0.05) with highest being maize (2,919). Mean termite count differed significantly by containers (p< 0.05) with highest being earthen pots (1787). Termite count at 6.00 am (2,021) differed significantly (p< 0.05) with at 6.00 pm (1,952). The count further differed significantly by temperature at night (22.1 0C) and day (30.2±0.13). Finally, count differed by relative humidity (p< 0.05) at night (91.0±0.10) and day (69.1±0.50). Results on the effect of bait type, container type, humidity and temperature on count of termites may have practical, policy and theoretical implications for sustainable agriculture.   Key words: Macrotermes bellicosus, substrate preference, mass trapping.

Assembly of Olivibacter sp. Strain UJ_SKK_5.1 Genome Sequence, Isolated from Metagenomes of Macrotermes bellicosus Guts Collected from Hot, Arid Nigeria.

The metagenome-assembled genome sequence of Olivibacter sp. strain UJ_SKK_5.1 was generated from the metagenome of a Macrotermes bellicosus (termites) gut collected from Nigeria's hot, arid environment. The assembled genome (6,135,249 bp) contains 432 contigs, with an N50 value of 22,779 bp, GC content of 41.1%, 5,043 protein-coding sequences, 5,034 proteins with functional assignments, and 9 pseudogenes and 48 RNA genes.

Termitic Diversity of the Dalhia Fleurs Partial Natural Reserve (Bingerville, Côte d’Ivoire)

Termites play an important ecological role. The objective of this work is to evaluate the diversity of termites in two different ecosystems (primary forest and horticultural forest) of the Partial Dalhia Fleurs Natural Reserve (DFNR) In each ecosystem, three transects were carried out using the standardized rapid termite assessment method. A total of 20 species of termites were sampled. In the primary forest, 18 species were sampled and 16 species in the horticultural forest. These species belong to two families which are the Termitidae with 17 species and the Rhinotermitinae. These termites were Macrotermes subhyalinus, Macrotermes bellicosus, Acanthotermes sp, Odontotermes sp, Ancistrotermes guineensis, Microtermes sp, Microtermes sp2, Procubitermes sp, Protermes sp, Pericapritermes sp, Microcerotermes parvus, Amphidotermes sp, Cubitermes fungifaber, Noditermes sp, Apilitermes sp, Amitermes guineensis and Trinervitermes sp. The second family was that of Rhinotermitidae with 3 species namely Coptotermes intermedius, Coptotermes sjöstedti and Schedorhinotermes lamanianus. Thus, the Dalhia Fleur Nature Reserve abounds in a significant wealth of termitic fauna. It is therefore important to protect it further.

SURVEY OF EDIBLE FOREST INSECTS UTILIZED BY THE PEOPLE IN SOUTH WEST NIGERIA

This study was conducted to take inventory of edible forest insects and evaluate their contributions to the livelihood of the people of southwest Nigeria. Multi-stage sampling technique was used to select three states (Lagos, Ogun and Kwara). Four towns were selected in each of the states while five respondents were randomly selected from each town. Sixty (60) Pre-tested semi-structured questionnaire was administered to selected respondents in the study area. Data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics. The study showed that majority of the respondents are married (53.4 %), female (61.7 %) with (75 %) having at least secondary education. The study also revealed that 10 different insects were collected and utilized for various purposes by the respondents with Macrotermes bellicosus and Apis mellifera being the most sort after insects, (18.2 %) each, while 66.7 % of the respondents collect/harvest their products during raining season mostly by hunting (30.1 %). Majority (70.7 %) of the respondents generate over ₦20,000 from sales of edible insects annually, while 21.5 % of the respondents opined that seasonal availability and irritating physical structure are the major constraints militating against the consumption of edible insects in the study area. Avoiding deforestation and indiscriminate forest fire were the major conservation measures suggested by the respondents. It was recommended that government should enforce legislation against bush burning and illegal felling of trees.

Inventory of Termites and Biogenic Structures in the Forest Adjoining the "Palm Trees" Restaurant of Felix Houphouet-Boigny University Campus (Abidjan - South Cote D'ivoire)

Termites play an important ecological role. Thus, this study was carried out in the forest adjoining restaurant "the palm trees of the university campus of Cocody" to determine the species of termites and their impacts on the trees of this forest. Three transects of 100m long and 2m wide each subdivided into 20 sections and Tropical soil biology and fertility (TSBF) monoliths were developed. Then a systematic excavation was carried out along transects in search of termites. Then the plot containing transects was prospected in order to identify termite mounds and biogenic structures. After inventory, we identified 7 species of termites: Macrotermes bellicosus, Microtermes sp, Basidentitermes sp, Odontotermes sp, Pericapritermes sp, Amitermes guineensis and Ancistrotermes guineensis. Wood-feeders, fungus-growers and soil-feeders are the trophic groups found on the site. Fungus-growers were the group with the most species. We recorded a 25% attack rate on the trees from transects. A total of 13 nests were counted including 9 epigeal termite mounds and 4 arboreal nests. The low richness recorded shows that our plot is heavily anthropized. The conservation or maintenance of this site would allow species to recolonize this space.

COMPARATIVE LETHAL IMPACT OF GLYPHOSATE AND PARAQUAT ON AFRICAN MOUND-BUILDING TERMITES (Macrotermes bellicosus Smeathman)

In Nigeria, glyphosate and paraquat are common herbicides employed for weed control because they are cost-effective in controlling weeds. It has been shown that, herbicides released into the environment can indirectly affect non-target species, often in harmful ways. We thus investigated the lethal effects of Force up® (glyphosate) and ParaQ® (paraquat) on workers of African mound-building termites (Macrotermes bellicosus Smeathman). The worker termites were treated with 30µl of glyphosate and paraquat at different concentrations viz; 25, 12.5, 6.25, 3.13 and 1.56 ml per 500 ml of water, while distilled water was used as control. Mortality of termites was recorded for 12 and 24 hrs after exposure. Data collected were subjected to variance analysis and probit regression. Results showed that glyphosate caused 48 - 88% mortality, while paraquat caused 36 - 96% mortality after 24 hrs exposure. The mortality was not dose-dependent as 12.5ml of glyphosate and paraquat exerted higher percentage of mortality than 25ml concentration. Conversely, the mortality increased after 24 hrs indicating time-dependent mortality. The toxicity index, i.e. (LC50 and LC90), was 16.82ml and 14.87ml for glyphosate and 2.63ml and 2.196ml for paraquat after 24 hrs of exposure. This apparently shows that paraquat is highly toxic to M. bellicosus at concentrations lower than the recommended rate. These findings calls for the re-evaluation of the use of paraquat-based herbicides in weed control as it negatively impacts termites populations which are key beneficial non-targets

PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF Macrotermes bellicosus INFESTATION ON PUBLIC UTILITY POLES IN EKOSODIN COMMUNITY, NIGERIA; IMPLICATION FOR UNINTERRUPTED ELECTRICITY SUPPLY

Termite infestation on wooden poles is becoming worrisome to home and business owners given the public reliance on such poles for electricity supply. Here electric poles were surveyed in the Ekosodin community using visual observation of randomly tagged functional poles to evaluate the extent of the infestation and the functional state of the poles relative to the infestation, alongside the economic cost of replacing the damaged poles in three predetermined areas (zones) within the community, based on the scale of human development. A total of 164 poles were surveyed, 26.8% (44) of which were concrete poles. The survey showed that the infested wooden poles outnumbered the ‘unaffected’ ones as more than two-thirds of the 120 wooden poles surveyed were infested as opposed to the uninfected ones (30.83%). The termite implicated in this impact was Macrotermes bellicosus Smeathman (Blattodea: Termitidae) and its impact visibly eroded the base and structural strength of affected poles, thus contributing to the tilting (53%) of the infested poles, which are load-bearing poles in dire need of replacement. Replacement cost for the affected poles within the community was estimated alongside the cost of pre-installation treatments of wooden poles, and the use of concrete poles, though more expensive than wooden poles which could mitigate termites’ impacts on the utility poles were recommended. Frequent replacement with untreated wooden poles may heighten the pressure on our natural resources through lumbering for pole production; besides the attendant threats and dangers of pole wreckage on people, homes and other facilities such as electricity transformers.

Comparison of healthfulness of conventional meats and edible insects in Sub-Saharan Africa using three nutrient profiling models

BackgroundMeat and meat products have been blamed for a myriad of problems facing human kind like lifestyle illnesses, environmental degradation, and climate change. Edible insects have been suggested as the suitable alternatives to conventional meats in order to ameliorate these drawbacks. Healthfulness is the ability for a given food to impart health benefits to the consumer. Evidence is however scanty on the healthfulness of both the meats and edible insects in order to have grounds for replacing meats with insects in the diet. This study aimed to comparatively evaluate the healthfulness of meats and edible insects in Sub-Saharan Africa using modern nutrient profiling models.Materials and methodsNutritional data for meats and edible insects were obtained from Food Composition Tables (FCTs) and a systematic review, respectively. The data was applied to three nutrient profiling models: the WXYfm (Ofcom) model that was designed to regulate advertising of foods to children, the RRR (Ratio of Recommended to Restricted) model that assesses the ratio of positive to negative nutrients in foods, and the GDA (Guideline Daily Amounts) model which has been used to regulate health claims on foods. Tukey's Studentized Range (HSD) Test (The SAS System) was used to check for significance in differences of healthfulness using mean scores.ResultsThe WXYfm model classified all foods as healthful, and Nasutitermes spp. was significantly more healthful than duck (P = 0.05). The RRR classified all foods as healthful, and Nasutitermes spp. was significantly more healthful than all other foods except Macrotermes bellicosus and tilapia (P = 0.05). Duck (for women and men) and pork (for women), were classified as unhealthful by the GDA scoring system, and duck was significantly less healthful than all other foods (P < 0.0001), except for pork and mutton.ConclusionEdible insects are promising alternatives to conventional meats, but the choice should be on a species-to-species basis. This would be significant in broadening the choice of protein sources to cater for an ever-increasing world population.

Ex situ studies on Macrotermes bellicosus as a potential bioremediation tool of polluted dump soil sites for Sub Saharan Africa

ABSTRACT Soil is a fragile ecosystem that could be contaminated by several factors such as anthropogenic and natural means: heavy metals, pesticides, hydrocarbon or petrochemicals, and leachates from wastes. This ex situ study intends to determine the bioremediation potentials of African mound termites (Macrotemes bellicosus) with their ability to improve the physical and to reduce the chemical and heavy metal contents in dumpsite soils. Three sites have been investigated (virgin soil, active dumpsite, dormant dumpsite). The influence of M. bellicosus on the dumpsite soil was appraised statistically using General Linear Model Analysis of Variance set at p > 0.05 is not significant. The activities of the termites reduced the heavy metals to Fe(III) (1.10 mg/kg), Mn(III) (1.37 mg/kg), Zn (15.30 mg/kg), Cu(II) (0.95 mg/kg), Cr(III) (0.19 mg/kg), Cd (2.25 mg/kg), Pb (0.10 mg/kg), Ni (0.08 mg/kg), V(V) (0.05 mg/kg), and THC (0.90 mg/kg) with F values of 2.07, 1.87, 1.51, 1.36, 1.47, 1.35, 1.85, 3.04, 3.00, and 1.42. The termites were able to significantly reduce the levels of the chemical loads of the dump soil at different day intervals (0, 30, 60, and 90 days) in the active site. Gentle variations were also noticed in dormant and virgin sites correspondingly. The level of heavy metal concentrations in Macrotemes bellicosus was in the following ranks: Fe(III)>Zn>Pb>Cr(III)>Cd>Mn(III)>Cu(II)>Ni>V(V). The bioaccumulation factors for heavy metals in the termites revealed that Fe(III) and Zn had values >1 and ≥1, correspondingly. The study established the potentials of insects like Macrotemes bellicosus for entomoremediation purposes. Prospective utilization of this novel biosystems and biotechnology will enhance the restoration and healthy ecological balance of any dumpsite soil or polluted environments in situ.

Use of the proteomic tool MALDI-TOF MS in termite identification

Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) has proved effective for the identification of many arthropods. A total of 432 termite specimens were collected in Mali, Cote d’Ivoire, Togo, Senegal, Switzerland and France. Morphologically, 22 species were identified, including Ancistrotermes cavithorax, Amitermes evuncifer, Cryptotermes brevis, Cubitermes orthognathus, Kalotermes flavicollis, Macrotermes bellicosus, Macrotermes herus, Macrotermes ivorensis, Macrotermes subhyalinus, Microcerotermes parvus, Microtermes sp., Odontotermes latericius, Procubitermes sjostedti, Promirotermes holmgreni, Reticulitermes grassei, Reticulitermes lucifugus, Reticulitermes santonensis, Trinervitermes geminatus, Trinervitermes occidentalis, Trinervitermes togoensis, Trinervitermes sp., Trinervitermes trinervoides and Trinervitermes trinervius. Analysis of MALDI-TOF MS spectra profiles from termites revealed that all were of high quality, with intra-species reproducibility and inter-species specificity. Blind testing of the spectra of 389 termites against our updated database with the spectra of 43 specimens of different termite species revealed that all were correctly identified with log score values (LSVs) ranging from 1.65 to 2.851, mean 2.290 ± 0.225, median 2.299, and 98.4% (383) had LSVs > 1.8. This study is the first on the use of MALDI-TOF for termite identification and shows its importance as a tool for arthropod taxonomy and reinforces the idea that MALDI-TOF MS is a promising tool in the field of entomology.

Indigenous Knowledge on Production and Utilisation of Termite (Isoptera) in Western Kenya

The study sought to assess the level of knowledge on the utilization of termites, harvesting methods and characterise local edible termite species. Focus group discussion with key informants was used to collect data that was analysed using SPSS Version 21.0 to generate descriptive statistics. Results indicated different levels of termites’ utilisation where 45% of farmers use alates as food, 35% as feed for chicks and quails, while 20% use the queen to fatten young bulls. Majority of farmers (40%) prefer the use of termites as feed because it is readily available, followed with 20% that use it because of nutritive value,10% relate its use with better taste of poultry products, 5 % associate termite use in enhancing early maturity weight while 5% said it improves growth and strength of bulls. On harvesting, three methods are commonly used with most farmers (45%) using underground trapping method, (35%) use above ground trapping method but 20% use mound excavation. Varied plant materials are used as attractants and the effect is more when combined with dry cow dung. Farmers further characterised species based on time of emergence of alates and habitat’s physical features. Most respondents (45%) associated: big mounds with Macrotermes bellicosus (Mafendete); small mount to Macrotermes subhyalinus (Kitunda); presence of open big tunnels with Coptotermes millitaris (Riamke) while seasonal gallaries and small tunnels was a confirmatory feature of either Pseudocanthotermes militaris (Chiisiisi) and Pseudocanthotermes spiniger (Maburi). The study demonstrates the richness in indigenous knowledge on techniques of termite production and utilization.